Nuclear Arms Race - Part 2 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Nuclear Arms Race - Part 2 - Assignment Example As the time passed by, the world observes technological advancements and the scientific technology also experienced a boom in their inventions, innovations, and advancements, which evolved the phenomenon of nuclear weapons. Thus, they became likely to be potential and sustained their growth through the nuclear guns, missiles and other weaponries until the beginning of the twenty first century (Lambers, 2006). The cold war between U.S. and USSR contributed to substantial, immense, and drastic crash and collision to the political, cultural, and technological aspects of these countries as both of them made efforts and techniques consecutively that prohibited each other from getting hold on to the nuclear power domination. Although, the nuclear arms and weapons are environment friendly when involved in the development process, yet it accompanies colossal damage to the environment when used in wars or other terrorist activities. The nuclear war not only results in the overwhelming and det eriorating impacts to the environment but at the same time thousands of people also come under the calamitous effects of the nuclear war (Siracusa, 2008). The wealth and funds that come under spending on the production and manufacturing of nuclear arms and weapons has been under many arguable and disputable discussions and dialogues in the recent times. According to the pieces of information, there are adequate amount of nuclear weapons available with the super powers, even though, the countries are continuously in the process of trading the nuclear weapons. The capital spent and the financing provided to the nuclear armaments and artillery must come under close observations by the governments of the countries, as they are the foremost and key source of mammoth obliteration and leaves an indelible imprint on the societies and its inhabitants (Schwartz, 1998). The immediate impacts of the nuclear wars and weapons evidence the loss of innumerable lives of the people at once, as when t he explosion hits a portion of land, it kills the nearby people on a large scale on abrupt basis. However, the nuclear arms and ammunitions make shocking, disturbing, and distressing long-term impacts on the environment, as the explosions are the one chief source of origin that is evident to the global warming. The increasing global warming is eventually making the lives of the human race miserable (Goldstein, 2009). One of the consequences of the nuclear weapons was that it involved a huge amount of money and capital for the research and development process as the innovation and advancement in technology made the research more expensive with the use of sophisticated and complicated equipments and machineries. The technological advancement and expansion, the actions and events involved in the process of nuclear arm building and manufacturing should not be adequate to avoid in the long term. One of the major consequences and risks that the human populace suffers from is the eye burns and impairments due to the reason that the discharge and emission of the heat energy in the form of dangerous ultraviolet light from the nuclear weapons causes intense harm to eyes. The eye damage can be in the form of flash blindness that is on provisional and short-term basis as it causes sightlessness and remains for a span of time. The retina is vulnerable to certain type and

Standardization of sodium hydroxide by ethanedioic acid solution Essay Example for Free

Standardization of sodium hydroxide by ethanedioic acid solution Essay Experiments: 1. Standardization of sodium hydroxide by ethanedioic acid solution 2. Determination of the concentration of commercial colourless vinegar Standardization of sodium hydroxide by ethanedioic acid Objective: To determine the molarity of sodium hydroxide. As the molarity of the sodium hydroxide is unknown, in order to standardize it, the concentration of the acid has to be known. Result: Titration Trial 1 2 3 4 Initial burette reading() 18. 33 8. 05 7. 52 8. 21. Final burette reading() 45. 48 36. 25 35. 79 36. 82 Volume of sodium hydroxide solution used() 27. 15(rejected) 28. 20 28. 27 28. 61 Average volume of sodium hydroxide solution used() 28. 36 Treatment for result: Molarity of the standard ethanedioic acid solution Mass of ethanedioic acid= 0. 8g Molar mass of ethanedioic acid= 2? (12+16+16+1) +2? (1+1+16) = 126 Number of mole of ethanedioic acid= 6. 35? Molarity of the ethanedioic acid= = 0. 025M Â  Molarity of the sodium hydroxide solution. Number of mole of 25. 0 ethanedioic acid= 6. 35 10 = 6. 35? Number of mole of sodium hydroxide = 6. 35 2 = 1. 27? Molarity of sodium hydroxide= 1. 27? = 0. 045M Determination of the concentration of commercial colourless vinegar Objective: The concentration of ethanoic acid in different brands of vinegar would be determined. As the compositions of vinegar in different brands are different, the highest concentration of ethanoic acid in the vinegar was said to be the best to buy. Result: Titration Trial 1 2 3 4 Initial burette reading() 5. 99 9. 28 8. 50 7. 05 Final burette reading() 20. 32 26. 22 25. 17 23. 86 Volume of sodium hydroxide solution used() 14. 33(rejected) 16. 94 16. 67 16. 80 Average volume of sodium hydroxide solution used() 16. 81 Treatment for result: * Concentration of ethanoic acid in the commercial vinegar(ShanTou) Number of mole of sodium hydroxide = 0. 045? 0. 01681 = 7. 56? ?Number of mole of ethanoic acid = 7. 56?

Should Gays Marry? :: Gay Marriages Homosexuality Essays

Should Gays Marry? The essays by William Bennett and Andrew Sullivan are just the tip of the iceberg in the debate over homosexual marriage. This debate has been going on for years, with many solidly supported opinions on the topic. Both authors provide strong points and well written essays, and include some similar ideas, even though the message of each essay is contradictory to the other. Andrew Sullivan’s essay, â€Å"Let Gays Marry,† is about how gays and lesbians have long been alienated from their basic rights as American citizens. He argues that allowing gays to marry will not drastically change the description of marriage as we know it, but will simply entitle same sex partners to devote themselves to each other, and declare their love for each other. The Supreme Court made an influential ruling that â€Å"’a state cannot deem a class of persons a stranger to its laws.’†(25) Sullivan argues that that is just what America has been doing by not legally recognizing domestic partners of the same sex. He claims that â€Å"at some point in our lives, some of us are lucky enough to meet the person we truly love,† (25) gays included. Sullivan recognizes that many religious organizations are against homosexuality, but this country has a separation of church and state that makes that argument arbitrary in terms of legality. He points out that the government gives out civil marriage licenses, and gays should not be left out of that. Sullivan also states that the definition of marriage has been changed in the past. Women are no longer the property of their husbands, and interracial marriages are no longer taboo. He argues that allowing gays to marry would simply be another revision for the better, not a radical change in the institution. Sullivan brings up the argument that marriage is for raising children, but many married couples have none. He lists as examples such people as the Doles and the Buchanans; two very conservative families. The article by William Bennett, â€Å"Leave Marriage Alone,† is about how marriage is a sacred tradition. He believes that if you broaden the definition to include gays, that act will totally alter the purpose and meaning of marriage.

Cbse Chemistry Notes for 11 and 12

Supplementary Textual Material in Chemistry for Class XI & Class XII 1 Acknowledgements CBSE ADVISORS Shri Vineet Joshi, I. A. S. , Chairman, CBSE Shri Shashi Bhushan, Director (Acad. ), CBSE CONVENOR & EDITOR Prof. A. K. Bakhshi Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi. DEVELOPMENT TEAM Prof. A. K. Bakhshi Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi. Dr. Anju Srivastava Hindu College, University of Delhi. Dr. Vimal Rarh S. G. T. B. Khalsa College, University of Delhi. Dr. Geetika Bhalla Hindu College, University of Delhi. Ms. Anupama Sharma Modern School, Vasant Vihar, New Delhi. MEMBER COORDINATOR Dr.Srijata Das, Education Officer, CBSE 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Class XI Unit 5 : States of Matter 5. 7. 1 Kinetic Energy and Molecular Speeds 5. 7. 2 Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of molecular speeds Unit 6 : Thermodynamics 6. 6. 1. Second Law of Thermodynamics 6. 8. Third Law of Thermodynamics Unit 7 : Equilibrium 7. 12. 1 pH of Buffer Solutions Class XII Unit 16 : Chemistry in Everyd ay Life 16. 4. 2. 1 Antioxidants 3 Unit 5: States of Matter 5. 7. 1 KINETIC ENERGY AND MOLECULAR SPEEDS As you have studied in the previous section the molecules of a gas are always in motion and are colliding with each other and with the walls of the container.Due to these collisions the speeds and the kinetic energies of the individual molecules keep on changing. However at a given temperature, the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules remains constant. If at a given temperature, n1 molecules have speed v1, n2 molecules have speed v2, n3 molecules have speed v3, and so on. Then, the total kinetic energy (EK) of the gas at this temperature is given by where m is the mass of the molecule. The corresponding average kinetic energy ( If the following term Then the average kinetic energy is given by where c is given by 4 ) of the gas will beThis ‘c’ is known as root-mean-square speed. As the name implies, to calculate c, first take the squares of the individual speeds , then their mean and finally the square root of the mean. It can be shown that c is related to temperature by The average kinetic energy depends only on absolute temperature and is related to absolute temperature by the expression where k = Boltzmann constant = 1. 38 x 10-23 J K-1 In the case of gases, one also talks of two other speeds, namely, average speed and most-probable speed. The average speed ( ) at a given temperature is the arithmetic mean of the speeds of different molecules of the gas. . e, where n1 molecules have speed v1, n2 molecules have speed v2, n3 molecules have speed v3, and so on. The relationship between average speed and temperature T is given by The most probable speed ( ) of a gas at a given temperature is the speed possessed by the maximum number of molecules at that temperature. Unlike average speed and root mean square speed, the most probable speed cannot be expressed in terms of the individual molecular speeds. The most probable speed ( ) is related t o absolute temperature (T) by the expression 5 Relationship between different types of molecular speedsThe three types of molecular speeds, namely, most probable speed ( ), average speed ( ) and root mean square speed (c) of a gas at a given temperature are related to each other as follows: For a particular gas, at a particular temperature, It follows from the above relationships that Example: Calculate the root mean square, average and most probable speeds of oxygen molecules at 27 oC. Solution: Given data: Molar mass of oxygen, M = 32 g mol-1 = 0. 032 kg mol-1 Temperature, t = 27 oC T = (27 + 273) K = 300 K 6 Expressions to be used: Root mean square speed, Average speed, Most probable speed, Actual calculationsRoot mean square speed, Average speed, Most probable speed, 5. 7. 2 MAXWELL-BOLTZMANN DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR SPEEDS The speeds of the individual molecules of a gas do not remain constant. They keep on changing due to inter molecular collisions and due to collisions with t he walls of the container. However, at a given temperature, the distribution of molecular speeds remains constant. This distribution of molecular speeds is given by Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution law. 7 For a given gas, at a given temperature, the distribution curve of molecular speeds is shown in Figure 5. 7. 1 Figure 5. 7. 1.Maxwell Boltzmann distribution curve You can see from the distribution curve that it is the plot of molecular speed vs the fraction of molecules. The important features of this distribution curve are: (i) The fraction of molecules having too low or too high speeds is very small. (ii) There is a certain speed for which the fraction of molecules is maximum. This speed is known as most probable speed. (iii) The most probable speed of a gas, is the speed possessed by the maximum number of molecules of the gas at a given temperature and it corresponds to the peak of the curve. Since the most probable speed ( xpression ) is related to absolute temperature T by the I t means that at the same temperature, lighter gases shall move faster than heavier gases as is evident from the distribution curves of chlorine and nitrogen gases in Figure 5. 7. 2. 8 Figure 5. 7. 2. Maxwell Boltzmann distribution curves for chlorine and nitrogen gases at 300K Effect of temperature In Figure 5. 7. 3. are given the Maxwell Boltzmann distribution curves of a gas at three different temperatures T1, T2 and T3 such that T1>T2>T3. Figure 5. 7. 3. Maxwell Boltzmann distribution curves for a gas at three different temperatures 9It can be seen from these distribution curves that as the temperature increases 1. The entire curve shifts towards right. 2. The most probable speed increases. 3. The fraction of molecules having most probable speed decreases. 4. The curve becomes broader in the middle range indicating that more molecules have speeds near to the most probable speed. 5. The fraction of molecules having higher speeds increases. 6. The fraction of molecules having lower speed decreases. It may be noted that the total area under each of the curves remains the same as the sum of fractions of molecules remains unaltered on changing the temperature. 0 EXERCISE 1. Calculate (i) root mean square speed (ii) average speed and (iii) most probable speed of CO2 molecules at 700 K . 2. A sample of a gas contains 15 molecules with a speed of 3 m s-1, 25 molecules with a speed of 5 m s-1 and 30 molecules with a speed of 8 m s-1. Calculate root mean square speed of these molecules. 3. Calculate the temperature at which the average speed of oxygen equals that of hydrogen at 20 K. 4. Calculate the temperatures at which the root mean square speed, average speed and the most probable speed of oxygen gas are all equal to 1500 m s-1. Answers 1. i. 629. 92, m s-1 ii. 80. 50 m s-1 iii. 514. 33 m s-1 2. 6. 187 m s-1 3. 320 K 4. T for root mean square speed= 2886 K, T for the average speed = 3399 K, T for most probable speed = 4330 K 11 12 Unit 6 : Thermodynamics 6. 6. 1 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS You have already studied in the previous sections that the first law of thermodynamics deals only with the law of conservation of energy and it gives no information about the criteria for feasibility of a given physical or chemical process. This law is always obeyed whether a given process occurs on its own or is made to occur with the help of an external agency.In any case the first law is valid in both the forward and reverse direction of the process. You have also learnt about the concept of entropy which is a measure of the randomness or the disorder in a system. This concept helps in explaining the spontaneity of the irreversible processes. For an irreversible process, the entropy of the system and surroundings taken together i. e. of the universe increases, while for a process at equilibrium it remains constant. This conclusion is of great importance as it helps us to predict whether a given process can take place spontaneously or not.Since a ll processes in nature occur spontaneously i. e. irreversibly, it follows that the entropy of the universe is increasing continuously. This important statement i. e. â€Å"in any spontaneous process, the entropy of the universe (system and surroundings) always increases† is also known as the second law of thermodynamics. ?SUniverse = ? Ssystem + ? Ssurroundings Specifically it means that If ? SUniverse > 0, the reaction is spontaneous If ? SUniverse < 0, the reaction is non-spontaneous If ? SUniverse = 0, the reaction is at equilibriumSince chemists are generally more interested in the system (reaction mixture) than the surroundings, it is therefore more convenient to restate the second law in terms of the thermodynamic properties of the system, without regard to the surroundings. As already described in the previous section, this is possible through the Gibbs free energy G which for a system is defined as G = H – TS. In terms of this thermodynamic property, the second law of thermodynamics can be restated as in any spontaneous process at 13 constant temperature and pressure, the free energy of the system (? Gsystem) always decreases.According to this definition If ? Gsystem < 0, the reaction is spontaneous If ? Gsystem > 0, the reaction is non-spontaneous If ?Gsystem = 0, the reaction is at equilibrium 6. 8. THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS The third law of thermodynamics is concerned with determination of entropy. It states that a substance which is perfectly crystalline at absolute zero of temperature has an entropy of zero. In a perfect crystal at absolute zero of temperature, each constituent of the crystal (atom, molecule or ion) is at the proper crystal lattice site and it therefore has the lowest energy.This means that this particular state is of perfect order, i. e, has zero disorder and hence zero entropy. Using zero value of entropy at absolute zero for a perfectly crystalline substance as the reference point (initial state), on e can calculate absolute value of entropy of the substance in any state (solid, liquid or gas) at any temperature by calculating ? S for the process/es in going from the initial state to the state of the substance for which entropy is to be calculated. However there are certain substances which possess certain entropy even at absolute zero.This entropy is known as residual entropy. The origin of residual entropy can be explained on the basis of the disorder which remains at absolute zero in certain crystals composed of AB types of molecules where A and B are similar atoms (as in CO). In such substances, there is a very little energy difference between â€Å"†¦AB AB AB†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and â€Å".. †¦AB BA BA AB†¦.. † and other arrangements so that the molecules adopt the orientations AB and BA at random in the solid. This gives rise to some disorder, also known as frozen disorder, and consequently residual entropy.For example in case of CO, the measured residual entropy is 5 J K-1 mol-1 which is close to the value expected for a random structure Figure 1 (B) of the form â€Å"†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦CO CO OC CO CO OC OC†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . 14 Figure 1. Alternative molecular arrangements for CO (A) Perfect crystal (B) Actual crystal EXERCISE 1. State Second Law of Thermodynamics. 2. Write the conditions in terms of ? H and ? S when a reaction would be always spontaneous. 3. When ? H > 0 and ? S < 0, a reaction is never spontaneous. Explain. 4. Comment on the spontaneity of a reaction at constant temperature and pressure in the following cases i) ? H < 0 and ? S > 0 (ii) ? H > 0 and ? S < 0 (iii) ? H < 0 and ? S < 0 (iv) ? H > 0 and ? S > 0 5. State third law of thermodynamics. 6. Explain the term residual entropy. 15 Unit 7: Equilibrium 7. 12. 1 pH OF BUFFER SOLUTIONS : HENDERSON – HASSELBALCH EQUATION As you have already learnt in the previous section a buffer solution is a solution which resists change in its pH on t he addition of small amount of acid or a base. Most of the important buffer solutions generally consist of mixtures of weak acids and their salts or weak bases and their salts.These buffer solutions are known as acidic buffers and basic buffers respectively. If the pH of the buffer solution is less than 7, it is called an acidic buffer and if the pH of the buffer solution is greater than 7 it is called a basic buffer. Examples of some acidic and basic buffers are as given below Acidic buffer Basic buffer 1) Acetic acid and sodium acetate 1) Ammonium hydroxide and ammonium chloride 2) Formic acid and sodium formate 2) Ammonium hydroxide and ammonium nitrate pH of an acidic buffer A very common example of an acidic buffer is a mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate.Acetic acid, being a weak acid, is very slightly dissociated, while sodium acetate being a salt is completely dissociated. The mixture thus contains acetic acid molecules as well acetate ions and sodium ions. At equilibr ium: CH3COOH(aq) H+ (aq) + CH3COO-(aq) Taking the negative logarithm on both the sides, we get 16 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(7. 39) In general, †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(7. 40) It may be noted that the concentration of the acetate ions is taken to be almost equal to the concentration of the salt because the acetate ions coming from fully dissociated salt (here sodium acetate) suppress the ionization of the weak acid (acetic acid). This equation (7. 0) is called Henderson- Hasselbalch equation. According to this equation, the pH of an acidic buffer consisting of a mixture of a weak acid and its salt depends on the pKa of the acid, and the concentrations of the salt and acid in the mixture. If concentration of the salt is equal to that of the acid, then Buffer action of Acidic buffer The buffer action of an acidic buffer consisting of a mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate can be explained in the following way. If we add small amount of HCl to the buffer solution it will ionise to give H+ ions. These combine with CH3COO- ions to form weakly ionized acetic acid.CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq) ? CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) Since H+ ions get neutralised by CH3COO- ions, there will be no change in pH. On the other hand, if we add a few drops of NaOH to the buffer solution, it provides OH- ions which are neutralized by the acetic acid present in the mixture. 17 OH-(aq) + CH3COOH(aq) ? CH3COO-(aq) + H2O(l) Therefore the pH of the solution remains unchanged. pH of a Basic Buffer A very common example of a basic buffer is a mixture of ammonium hydroxide and ammonium chloride. Ammonium hydroxide being a weak base is very slightly dissociated, while ammonium chloride being a salt is completely dissociated.The mixture thus contains ammonium hydroxide molecules as well as ammonium ions and chloride ions. At equilibrium, NH4OH(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) Taking the negative logarithm on both the sides, we get †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(7. 41) In general, †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(7. 42) 18 It may be noted that the concentration of the ammonium ions is taken to be almost equal to the concentration of the salt because ammonium ions coming from the fully dissociated salt (here ammonium chloride) suppress the ionization of the weak base ammonium hydroxide. This equation (7. 42) is called Henderson- Hasselblach equation. Further, pH can be calculated easily from pOH using Hence,It may be noted that pKa + pKb = 14 Buffer action of basic buffer The buffer action of a basic buffer consisting of a mixture of ammonium hydroxide and ammonium chloride can be explained in the following way. If a few drops of HCl are added to the buffer solution, it will ionise to give H+ ion which will combine with OH- ions to form H2O. H+(aq) + OH- (aq) ? H2O(l) Therefore, the addition of HCl will not change the pH. On the other hand, when a few drops of NaOH solution are added to the buffer solution, it would give OH- ions. These OH- ions combine with NH4+ ions present in the solution to form NH4OH, which is only slightly ionised.OH-(aq) + NH4+ (aq) ? NH4OH(aq) Hence, the addition of a base also will not change the pH. 19 EXERCISE 1. A certain buffer is made by mixing sodium formate and formic acid in water. With the help of equations explain how this buffer neutralizes addition of a small amount of an acid or a base. 2. A basic buffer is made by mixing ammonium hydroxide and ammonium nitrate in water. Explain how this buffer resists change in its pH on addition of a small amount of an acid or a base. 3. What would be the pH of a solution obtained by mixing 10 g of acetic acid and 15 g of sodium acetate and making the volume equal to 1 L.Dissociation constant of acetic acid at 25oC is 1. 75 x 10-5. 4. A buffer solution contains 0. 40 mol of ammonium hydroxide and 0. 50 mol of ammonium chloride to make a buffer solution of 1 L. Calculate the pH of the resulting buffer s olution. Dissociation constant of ammonium hydroxide at 25oC is 1. 81 x 10-5. Answers 3. pH = 4. 80 4. 9. 161 20 Class XII Unit 16: Chemistry in Everyday Life 16. 4. 2. 1. ANTIOXIDANTS Antioxidants are one of the important and necessary food additives. These compounds retard the action of oxygen on food thus reducing its speed of decomposition by oxidation. Hence they help in the preservation of food.These act as sacrificial materials, i. e. these are more reactive towards oxygen than are the materials they are protecting. They also reduce the rate of involvement of free radicals in the aging process. Examples: The two most familiar antioxidants used are butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA) (Figure 1). These phenolic compounds are added to preserve fats in packaged food. Oxygen reacts preferentially with BHA or BHT rather than oxidizing fats or oils, thereby protecting them from spoilage. The addition of BHA to butter increases its storage life from mo nths to years.Sometimes, BHT and BHA are added in combination with citric or ascorbic acids to produce a more active synergetic effect. Figure 1: Butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA) Sulphur dioxide and sulphites ( such as sodium sulphite, sodium bisulphite and sodium metabisulphite) are useful antioxidants for wine and beers, sugars syrups and cut, peeled or dried fruits and vegetables. They prevent or reduce their discoloration. 21 EXERCISE 1. Name one antioxidant commonly used to increase the storage life of butter. 2. Name one antioxidant used in wine and beers. 22a

Sociology and Perspective

A family is â€Å"a set of people related by blood, marriage or some other agreed-upon relationship, or adoption, who share the primary responsibility for reproduction and caring for members of society. † (Schaefer, 2009) A family is considered a social institution. This social institution is one that can be applied to all three sociological theories which are functionalism, conflict, and interactionism. The first sociological theory is functionalism. A functionalism perspective is a â€Å"sociological approach that emphasizes the way in which the parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability. Schaefer, 2009) This simply means for in the instance of a family that the family in a whole is stable because each family member has a role that they must fulfill. They are dependent on each other to help fulfill their role. If one family member was to leave then there would be dysfunction until the family finds someone to fill that empty role or learns how to deal without that role being fulfilled. Dysfunction is â€Å"the element or process of a society that may actually disrupt the social system or reduce its stability. Schaefer, 2009) Another dysfunction for a family could be a new member being introduced into the family. The new member would then have a new role to play for the family and the family would have to figure out how to deal with this new role. Until the new role is figured out dysfunction will leave the family unstable. The second sociological theory is Conflict. Conflict perspective is â€Å"a sociological approach that assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms of tension between groups over power or the allocation of resources, including housing, money, access to services, and political representation. Schaefer, 2009) This perspective relates to a family in two ways. Family The first is inner structure of a family. Within a family you have members that sometimes fight for roles. Example is who will be the breadwinner and the one who makes all the decisions for the family. These types competition in families to see who will be the more successful and who will have what role can cause a lot conflict and resentment within the family. The second is the outer elements. The family as a whole is always having tension from being in conflict with other families for status. The phrase â€Å"keeping up with the Jones’s† is a prime example of how two families compete with each other to see who makes more and who can climb the social ladder first. The third sociological theory is interactionism. The interactionism perspective is â€Å"a sociological approach that generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction in order to explain society as a whole. † (Schaefer, 2009) This is a view that looks at what we do and how we do it. This approach takes a in depth look at our daily routines. For example like the way we interact at work, school, in other public places like a bus stop or even our behavior in small groups. This is also known as mircosociology. When taking this approach a person sees meaning in objects that includes materialistic things, one's actions, other people's impacts on us, relationships in our life's, and even can include symbols. Symbols can be especially important because they have shared social meanings that can be understood by all members of society. Symbols are nonverbal communication. For a family institution the similarities that these three sociological theories share is based on one common characteristic. That one similarity is that none of them would be effective without some sort of structure. All three of these theories view a family as a group of. Family individuals that are always interacting with each. Their roles are almost always dependent on the other members in their family. That each member has a role to play in order for the family to function effectively and keeps the family as a whole stable. Their roles are based on their actions and how those actions effect the other members of the group. Though all three of these perspectives have this one major characteristic in common they also have some differences. For instance the functionalist perspective sees an unconscious smoothness to how the family interacts with each other. It is like a well oiled machine that each piece is important and without that one piece the machine will not work properly or at all. Functionalist view these interactions as something that is positive and rarely have many conflicts to overcome. While the conflict perspective seems to view consent struggles with many aspects of the family. There is first the conflicts that fill the inside of the family. Those are the struggles a member has with other members of the family for roles within the family. The other is the conflicts the family has as a whole with other families. These are usually over status's such as power, money, housing, political representation and etc. Families competing against other families to have more than the other families. Basically they want to outdo and be more important than others. Interactionism perspective is a mixture of both the other two perspectives. It is mircosociology and looks at every action to see meaning in them. They tend to look really close at how one thing effects other things. The best way to describe it is a cause and effect. Interactionism also looks at the dramaturgical approach. The dramaturgical approach is â€Å"when people are seen as theatrical performers. † (Schaefer, 2009) They look at how people. Family can change roles from one environment to another. For example a person might act a specific way at work or school a more serious role and then at a party they may play a different role, a role of a cool and laid back. It is to say that interactionism looks at the mechanics of the workings of a institution. The affect that the theories perspective has on the individual's view that is part of the family is different for each perspective. Each perspective has a different view of what makes the institution come together and work as a whole. A individual's view on the functionalist perspective would see how the dynamics of the institution comes together and support each other to be make the family as a whole stable. The individual would see how important it is for each person to fulfill their role for everything to work. For example the individual would see how even a person who would normally be considered dysfunctional can sometimes play important role in a families structure. A person for example who is always ill may actually be a strong way for the family to form a closer bond and to connect with each other and keep them even closer than they were. The individual will also be able to see how dysfunction can cause the family to slip from stable to unstable. If the person who was in charge of making the decisions for the family dies the family will be unstable because there will be problems caused by the lack of decision making. This dysfunction can through the family out of balance for a length of time that is really unknown. Sometimes the family can overcome the loss and one of the other members will resume the role of decision maker. Other times it may be that the family will find a new person to bring into the family to take this role and in some cases the family then falls apart. Family and goes their own separate ways and the institution is then destroyed. This view is usually of one of harmony. The view the individual might have with the conflict perspective is one of consent chaos and struggle. They will see how each member of their family seems to always be competing with each other to become the decision maker or the breadwinner. This is a type of dysfunction that is continuously happening and keeping the family from becoming fully stable. The family is seen as a dysfunctional family but yet at the same time a family that works. This individual may also view that the family that is stable as a unit may still always be in a consent struggle with other families. The individual could see how their family works together in harmony to obtain its goal. For example if the family would like to achieve more money than the family would work together to find a way to achieve this goal or if they are trying to achieve a certain political status the family would work together. This has been very obvious these recent years as we watch not only the candidates go out and give speeches and campaigning, but also their spouses, children, and other family members have even been out campaigning for them. Another great example is African American families not as much now but several years back were always under a consent struggle to have rights and be treated as everyone else. The struggle that they endured seemed to hold their family together by a common factor. This view would show that the family comes together because of the constant struggle that they are always under. Family Interactionism perspective a individual in the family would view this as the a way to study how exactly it is that a family functions together. How their family interacts with each other and also with others in society. The individual would view how the members of their family act differently around different members because of the different types of relationships that they have. For example a individual who is a daughter, mother, wife, and sister will act towards their parents, their child, their husband and their sibling differently. That individual will change her role to fit the need for that relationship. Interactionism calls this a dramaturgical approach because it is as if they are a theatrical performer switching characters for different circumstances. Along with how the individual would view the workings of the how the inner family works they also view how the individuals and the family as a whole interacts with people out in society such as people at church, school, work, the store, and in small groups. They are able to view and understand many nonverbal communications that their family members make to each other as well as universal gestures with others outside of their family. This view is in depth and finer workings of how the family functions in many different ways. Social change has different effects on different types of institutions. Depending on what social change has taken place probably would have different effects considering that some social changes might not be relevant to the family while others might have many different effects. Family The affect a family with the functionalist perspective would have on a social change such as gay's having all the same rights as straight couples would help to stabilize many new families. This type of social change could help the stability of many families because in today's society gays are becoming more open and wanting to have families of their own. With the acceptance of gay people having the same rights it will allow for new families to be formed and those families to take on the structures without the struggles that they once incurred. That will allow these families to be able to find the balance that is needed and a unstable family to become stable. A family with the conflict perspective can be affected by a social change such as terrorist policies may find themselves struggling against stereotyping and prejudice because of their ethnic background. These ethnic families could find themselves in a continuous tension between different racial groups because they are suspected of being terrorist because of their racial group. This could easily throw the family into a major struggles to argue and defend themselves to others. Interactionism perspective may not really have any affect on a family with social change. Instead interactionist would view how these social changes would affect the family and it would also view how they interact with others. An example would be how a African American family would interact with others in their society of other racial backgrounds or vice versa. Another would be how our own family interacts with gays who can marry and have families together. This perspective is one of fine beauty no matter if the outcome is good or bad, stable or unstable it is still a amazing thing to see how everything and everyone comes together. Family Society views the institution of a family differently. Some people are more likely to prefer one perspective over others. Many in our society view a family that portrays the functionalist as a prefect family everyone has their place they fulfill their roles and do it well. They are stable with little disruptions. The society tends to view conflict perspective in different ways. One is that if the conflict is within the family that family is considered a dysfunctional family. It is usually chaotic and strange. Another way to view if the conflict is the family as a whole against another element as a strong family that works together hard to achieve a goal. These families could be considered close and competitive. Society under the interactionist view may watch different groups of families to see how they interact with others in society and then base stereotyping which can lead to discrimination based on the majority. The one thing about all of these perspectives is that they are all dealing with the way that families are interacting with each other and others outside of the family. They are all intertwined with each other and shows how the structures are formed and how they are dependent on each other. I personally find that there is truth in all three of the perspectives and I feel that there is true beauty in the complexity of this institution.

Ancient greece essays

Ancient greece essays Ive just begun my journey home, however I cant wait to tell you all that Ive seen and done. As I crossed the Athenian plain, my eyes were drawn to the three hundred fifty foot summit of the mighty acropolis (Tozer 247). I must say that until I got into Athens itself I thought Id made a terrible mistake coming in the summer. Outside of the city it is oppressively hot and humid, however as I entered the city I began to feel the cool sea breezes (Garland 22). I walked through the town to see the craftsmen at work, such statues they make. Absolute perfection, every muscle clearly defined like Apollo himself (Birch). Many of the craftsmen had recently finished working on pieces for the Parthenon. They painstakingly depicted the myths and history of Athena as well as Athens. On the east pediment is the depiction of Athenas birth. On the west is the battle between Poseidon and Athena for control of Athens. The statue of Athena is an object of unparalleled beauty; her face, arms, and feet are veneered in ivory, her clothing thickly plated in gold, and her eyes inlaid with precious stones (Woodford 39). While the sculpture is the best Ive seen, I must mention the architecture of the building itself. The size is overwhelming, as it is one hundred one feet and four inches wide, two hundred twenty-eight feet and one inch long. There are eight columns on each end and seventeen across its sides. Each column is six feet and three inches i n diameter, thirty-four feet and three inches in height (Woodford 17). There is a well blended mix of doric as well as ionic elements (Pomeroy et al 275). The acropolis is a sight to behold, Athens truly is a great city. The agora is filled with many different shops. There are bankers tables, booksellers, wholesale merchants, you can get all the necessities here (Pomeroy et al 283). I was so hungry by this time I stopped and got some ...

What Creates a Current Account Balance

What Creates a Current Account Balance The Economics Dictionary defines the balance of the Current Account as follows: The current account balance is the difference between a countrys savings and its investment. [If the current account balance is] positive, it measures the portion of a countrys saving invested abroad; if negative, the portion of domestic investment financed by foreigners savings. The current account balance is defined by the sum of the value of imports of goods and services plus net returns on investments abroad, minus the value of exports of goods and services, where all these elements are measured in the domestic currency. In laymans terms, when a countrys current account balance is positive (also known as running a surplus), the country is a net lender to the rest of the world. When a countrys current account balance is negative (also known as running a deficit), the country is a net borrower from the rest of the world. The U.S. current account balance has been in a deficit position since 1992 (see chart), and that deficit has been growing. Thus the United States and its citizens have been borrowing heavily from other countries such as China. This has alarmed some, though others have argued that it means eventually the Chinese government will be forced to raise the value of its currency, the yuan, which will help alleviate the deficit. For the relationship between currencies and trade, see A Beginners Guide to Purchasing Power Parity (PPP). U.S. Current Account Balance 1991-2004 (in Millions) 1991: 2,8981992: -50,0781993: -84,8061994: -121,6121995: -113,6701996: -124,8941997: -140,9061998: -214,0641999: -300,0602000: -415,9992001: -389,4562002: -475,2112003: -519,6792004: -668,074Source: Bureau of Economic Analysis Current Account References Articles on the Current AccountDefinition of the Current Account

The Texas Revolution and the Republic of Texas

The Texas Revolution and the Republic of Texas The Texas Revolution (1835–1836) was a political and military insurrection by settlers and inhabitants of the Mexican state of Coahuila y Texas against the Mexican government. Mexican forces under General Santa Anna attempted to crush the rebellion  and had victories at the legendary Battle of the Alamo and the Battle of Coleto Creek, but in the end, they were defeated at the Battle of San Jacinto and forced to leave Texas. The revolution was successful, as the present-day US state of Texas broke off from Mexico and Coahuila and formed the Republic of Texas. The Settlement of Texas In the 1820s, Mexico wished to attract settlers to the vast, sparsely populated State of Coahuila y Texas, which consisted of the present-day Mexican State of Coahuila as well as the US State of Texas. American settlers were eager to go, as the land was plentiful and good for farming and ranching, but Mexican citizens were reluctant to relocate to a backwater province. Mexico reluctantly allowed Americans to settle there, provided they became Mexican citizens and converted to Catholicism. Many took advantage of colonization projects, such as the one led by Stephen F. Austin, while others simply came to Texas and squatted on vacant land. Unrest and Discontent The settlers soon chafed under Mexican rule. Mexico had just won its independence from Spain in 1821, and there was much chaos and infighting in Mexico City as liberals and conservatives struggled for power. Most Texas settlers approved of the Mexican constitution of 1824, which granted many freedoms to states (as opposed to federal control). This constitution was later rescinded, angering the Texans (and many Mexicans as well). The settlers also wanted to split from Coahuila and form a state in Texas. The Texan settlers were initially offered tax breaks which were later taken away, causing further discontent. Texas Breaks from Mexico By 1835, troubles in Texas had reached a boiling point. Tensions were always high between Mexicans and American settlers, and the unstable government in Mexico City made things that much worse. Stephen F. Austin, long a believer in staying loyal to Mexico, was jailed without charges for a year and a half: when he was finally released, even he was in favor of independence. Many Tejanos (Texan-born Mexicans) were in favor of independence: some would go on to fight valiantly at the Alamo and other battles. The Battle of Gonzales The first shots of the Texas Revolution were fired on October 2, 1835, in the town of Gonzales. The Mexican authorities in Texas, nervous about the increased hostility with the Texans, decided to disarm them. A small squad of Mexican soldiers was sent to Gonzales to retrieve a cannon stationed there to fight off Indian attacks. The Texans in the town did not allow the Mexicans entry: after a tense standoff, the Texans fired on the Mexicans. The Mexicans swiftly retreated, and in the whole battle there was but one casualty on the Mexican side. But the war had begun and there was no going back for the Texans. The Siege of San Antonio With the outbreak of hostilities, Mexico began making preparations for a massive punitive expedition north, to be led by President/General Antonio Là ³pez de Santa Anna. The Texans knew they had to move quickly to consolidate their gains. The rebels, led by Austin, marched on San Antonio (then more commonly referred to as Bà ©xar). They laid siege for two months, during which time they fought off a Mexican sally at the Battle of Concepcià ³n. In early December, the Texans attacked the city. Mexican General Martà ­n Perfecto de Cos conceded defeat and surrendered: by December 12 all Mexican forces had left the city. The Alamo and Goliad The Mexican army arrived in Texas, and in late February laid siege to the Alamo, a fortified old mission in San Antonio. Some 200 defenders, among them William Travis, Jim Bowie, and Davy Crockett, held out to the last: the Alamo was overrun on March 6, 1836, and all within were slain. Less than a month later, about 350 rebellious Texans were captured in battle and then executed days later: this was known as the ​Goliad Massacre. These twin setbacks seemed to spell doom for the nascent rebellion. Meanwhile, on March 2, a congress of elected Texans officially declared Texas independent from Mexico. The Battle of San Jacinto After the Alamo and Goliad, Santa Anna assumed he had beaten the Texans and divided his army. Texan General Sam Houston caught up to Santa Anna on the banks of the San Jacinto River. On the afternoon of April 21, 1836, Houston attacked. Surprise was complete and the attack turned first into a rout, then into a massacre. Half of Santa Annas men were killed and most of the others were taken prisoner, including Santa Anna himself. Santa Anna signed papers ordering all Mexican forces out of Texas and recognizing the independence of Texas. The Republic of Texas Mexico would make several half-hearted attempts to re-take Texas, but after all Mexican forces left Texas following San Jacinto, they never had a realistic chance of re-conquering their former territory. Sam Houston became the first President of Texas: he would serve as Governor and Senator later when Texas accepted statehood. Texas was a republic for almost ten years, a time which was marked by many troubles, including tension with Mexico and the US and difficult relations with local Indian tribes. Nevertheless, this period of independence is looked back upon with great pride by modern Texans. Texas Statehood Even before Texas split from Mexico in 1835, there were those in Texas and the USA that were in favor of statehood in the USA. Once Texas became independent, there were repeated calls for annexation. It wasnt so simple, however. Mexico had made it clear that while it was forced to tolerate an independent Texas, annexation would likely lead to war (in fact, the US annexation was a factor in the outbreak of the 1846-1848 Mexican-American War). Other sticking points included whether slavery would be legal in Texas and the federal assumptions of Texas debts, which were considerable. These difficulties were overcome and Texas became the 28th state on December 29, 1845. Resources and Further Reading Brands, H.W. Lone Star Nation: the Epic Story of the Battle for Texas Independence. New York: Anchor Books, 2004.Henderson, Timothy J. A Glorious Defeat: Mexico and its War with the United States.New York: Hill and Wang, 2007.

The influence of quantitative easing monetary policy on Japan and the Research Paper

The influence of quantitative easing monetary policy on Japan and the United States - Research Paper Example Expansionary monetary policies aimed at stimulating the economy usually involve central banks buying short-term government bonds so that the market interest rates can be lowered. Nonetheless, when short-term interest rates go towards zero, this approach may no longer be effective. In this kind of situation, the monetary authorities may employ the use of quantitative easing to stimulate the economy through purchase of assets that mature in the long-term rather than short-term government bonds, therefore decreasing the interest rates away from the yield curve. Quantitative easing may be important in assisting to make sure that inflation does not go below the target, but it has risks including over-efficacy than originally intended against deflation, thereby resulting in higher inflation in the longer term from increased supply or sufficiently effective in the event that additional reserves are not lent out by banks. Based on the opinion of various economists as well as the IMF, quantitative easing used since the beginning of the financial crisis that was experienced between 2007 and 2008, has been critical in mitigating various adverse impacts of the crisis (Gindin and Panitch 326). Various economists and analysts argue that the US Federal Reserve employed some type of quantitative easing from 1930 all the way to 1940s in the fight against the Great Depression. Nevertheless, as the Federal Reserve employed quantitative easing initiatives to address the effects of 2007-08 financial crisis, various critics have considered its actions extraordinary. Further, charts have been created to point out that, as a fraction of GDP, the balance sheet after the financial crisis had not gone past the percentages that were attained between 1939 and 48 as of May 2013. The phrase â€Å"quantitative easing† was for the first time employed by the Bank of Japan when it was dealing with domestic

Personal statement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 7

Personal statement - Essay Example For a reputable student with less finances, I would apply high earning aspect in New York City, thus start raising money. Even though the effort might not come out very huge, this attempt will ask people to pay regard to a community like ‘The Association to Benefit Children’. I would choose â€Å"My Father’s Eyes† by Eric Clapton. This song embraces all generations and is preferred. As a business man or CEO of a company, a person should be responsible for his employees’ management. If offered a chance to sing, I would harmonize one powerful speech which would change people’s mind. My father has worked as President of a company over 20 years which has attracted me with his challenging persona. As I am not a person who is satisfied with sticking at once place, I ventured into the realms of Stern School of Business at NYU as it is competitive and has produced many successful business folks, hence encouraging

Working break down structure Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Working break down structure - Essay Example (Brotherton, F &N, 2008). For instance range estimates from WBS package method may be used for element 1.2.2, where time estimate are located. In case this element begins on a holiday or weekend when suppliers have closed, the idle period may be inserted in the critical path. The elements of WBS helps in identifying resources needed for each element. In this case, the resources required are human resources, equipment resources, materials, and space. A WBS helps to allocate cost to specific work package, for example, labor, materials, equipment, and so on. In this case, 1.3.1 parts prepared will be allocated more costs estimates. WBS helps in identifying projects activities and sub-activities, and the tasks and subtasks. Each activity or task must be equal to the sum of its sub-elements. A WBS helps allocate time for a specific activity, for instance, incase, 1.2.1 begins on a weekend the individual who was supposed to perform the task may be assigned another

Different Types of Technology used in Criminal Justice Essay

Different Types of Technology used in Criminal Justice - Essay Example Drug testing technology has become a common factor in the American criminal society. Drug testing’s application is far-reaching in many fields such as police forces, airline pilots, federal employees and even participants in school sports. Also, prospective executives of the National Institute of Justice have to go through drug tests as regulations of employment. In the field of criminal justice, the moderately inexpensive and considerably powerful drug test to determine drug use has opened a broad range of issues that reach into unfamiliar territories of policy, law and practice. Criminal fighting agencies use this technology to fight drug abuse in America mostly the police force and anti drug agencies. Another influential technology is the DNA technology. DNA allows criminal fighting agencies to match a genetic sample to a person at a mathematical level that has total assurance. DNA tests are frequently used in roughly all jurisdictions across the country. DNA testing is use d in connecting a suspect to a crime (Lazer, 2004). A key agency that uses this technology in the U.S. is the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Concealed weapons detection technology is a technology that permits criminal fighting agencies to locate hidden weapons. Police officers, court security officers plus other enforcement officials can now predict whether or not a person is carrying a firearm (Gibbons, 1988). This helps to maintain law and order in the society since people carrying firearms could easily be tracked (Gibbons, 1988). Information technology helps criminal fighting agencies to locate information regarding crime or a location that is prone to criminal activities. Police officers can verify the history of a suspect through fingerprints, fill in paperwork in the squad car through using a hand-sized laptop, and go back to patrol. This technology is mostly used by the police force such as probation officers to track the activities of probationers

&quot;Policy Improvements&quot; Coursework 9 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

"Policy Improvements" 9 - Coursework Example timulus and increase in aggregate demand stabilizes prices and increase effectiveness of monetary policies through: increasing demand for labor and government spending, leading to business growth and economic stimulus. It also leads to lower unemployment rate and thus an increase in income per capita, which raises living standards. Therefore, the curve emphasizes the tradeoff between unemployment and the inflation rate. (Meade, & Thornton, 2011). The curve can hence be used to figure out the optimal level of unemployment that gives the desired inflation rate. The objective function can determine the effective and appropriate monetary policy that will lead to the achievement of target economic goals depending on their effect on inflation and output levels. The Function describes the tradeoff between the output gap and the inflation gap and the economy’s responsiveness to deviations of output levels and the inflation rates from their ideals. The weight attached to the inflation rate in the objective function will represent the responsiveness of the economy to the changes in inflation. The function summarizes the total cost to the economy whenever there is an output gap or inflation gap. The output gap occurs whenever the real output of the economy differs from the potential production of the economy while the inflation gap exists whenever there is a deviation of the inflation rate from the ideal inflation rate (Boivin, & Giannoni, 2006). In such situations, the economy bears costs directly and indirectly in the form of underutilizat ion of resources in the case where the output level is below the potential economy and the usage of resources at an unsustainable rate in the case where production is higher than the ideal. When the inflation rate is unexpectedly high, the costs of goods rise resulting in lower consumptions which ultimately leads to lower output and higher unemployment

Different Types of Technology used in Criminal Justice Essay

Different Types of Technology used in Criminal Justice - Essay Example Drug testing technology has become a common factor in the American criminal society. Drug testing’s application is far-reaching in many fields such as police forces, airline pilots, federal employees and even participants in school sports. Also, prospective executives of the National Institute of Justice have to go through drug tests as regulations of employment. In the field of criminal justice, the moderately inexpensive and considerably powerful drug test to determine drug use has opened a broad range of issues that reach into unfamiliar territories of policy, law and practice. Criminal fighting agencies use this technology to fight drug abuse in America mostly the police force and anti drug agencies. Another influential technology is the DNA technology. DNA allows criminal fighting agencies to match a genetic sample to a person at a mathematical level that has total assurance. DNA tests are frequently used in roughly all jurisdictions across the country. DNA testing is use d in connecting a suspect to a crime (Lazer, 2004). A key agency that uses this technology in the U.S. is the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Concealed weapons detection technology is a technology that permits criminal fighting agencies to locate hidden weapons. Police officers, court security officers plus other enforcement officials can now predict whether or not a person is carrying a firearm (Gibbons, 1988). This helps to maintain law and order in the society since people carrying firearms could easily be tracked (Gibbons, 1988). Information technology helps criminal fighting agencies to locate information regarding crime or a location that is prone to criminal activities. Police officers can verify the history of a suspect through fingerprints, fill in paperwork in the squad car through using a hand-sized laptop, and go back to patrol. This technology is mostly used by the police force such as probation officers to track the activities of probationers

The legal restrictions of race and whiteness Essay

The legal restrictions of race and whiteness - Essay Example It happened in 1985 when the United States administration under President Ronald Reagan, supplied weapons to Iran in exchange for hostages that were being held by Hezbollah a terrorist outfit loyal to Ayatollah Khomeini the Iran leader. Proceeds from this sale were given to the Contra guerrillas in Nicaragua. The Contras were armed opposition to Nicaragua’s Sandinista Junta of National Reconstruction, which formed after Anastasio Somoza Dabayle was overthrown from government. The Gorbachev policy of Perestroika and Glasnost were the two policies that were put into practice in the USSR. Perestroika was the democratization of the communist party allowing civilians to have a modest ay, in government, and economic reform by allowing some industries to operate semi-privately and ending price control through a semi-free market system. Glasnost meant openness, which increased the freedom of expression in the media and people. The birth control pill has defined the 20th Century by giving women an upper hand in dictating when to fall pregnant unlike before it was discovered where they relied on luck or fate. The birth control pill has made it easier to control unwanted pregnancies and control population. The Bay of Pigs was a military incursion into Cuba by exiles that were trained and supported, by the United States government, to try and overthrow the dictatorship regime of President Fidel Castro. Their action was unsuccessful because they did not receive the expected from the

Formative Evaluation Essay Example for Free

Formative Evaluation Essay The processes of evaluation depend mainly on the purpose of the evaluation and the object to be evaluated. There are many processes of evaluation, but the most important basic distinction in these processes is between formative and summative. Formative Evaluation In this process, the evaluation is done on the strengths, weaknesses and even on how to improve the object. It is usually done by examining the delivery of the service or the technology, implementation of the quality, and the assessment of the organizational personnel, procedures, and context among others. The formative evaluation can be subdivided into the following types of evaluation which are very essential: assessment evaluation, which is used in order to determine the feasibility of the evaluation and how the administrators, sponsors, donors among others can help to improve its usefulness; process evaluation, this mainly involves investigation of the process of service or technology delivery and other alternative delivery processes; needs assessment, this is used to determine who needs the program, the greatness of the need, and even how to meet the need; and lastly, implementation evaluation, which involves the monitoring of the fidelity of service or technology deliverance ( Trochim, 2006). Summative evaluation This process of evaluation examines the outcomes of the effects of some object on the service or technological deliverance. It usually describes what happens subsequent to technology or service delivery, assess whether the object caused the observed outcome, and even est imate the cost associated with the object. The summative evaluation consists of several types and these include: impact evaluation, this usually involves the assessment of the overall effects of the service or the technology; outcome evaluation, this deals with investigating whether the service or the technology caused the effects on that specific target outcome; cost effectiveness and benefit analysis, which deals with questions of efficiency and effectiveness by standardizing the outcomes in terms of values and cost; meta-analysis, which involves the integration of the outcome estimates from the all the studies done to come to an overall judgement about the question(s) being evaluated; and lastly, secondary analysis, which involves reexamination of the existing data so that new questions can be addressed or new methods can used (Trochim, 2006). The most important objectives of evaluation is to provide a useful feedback to various audiences, who may include administrators, sponsors, staff and even donors among others. It is often done to gauge success in attaining organization goals. In most cases, the feedback from evaluation is perceived as useful since it helps in decision-making and policy formulation. However, in very rare cases the evaluation feedback can fail to influence the making of short-term decisions. The evaluation tool is mainly used in a workplace by the employers to review employee performance and is usually done by the supervisors or senior managers. In such a case, it may involve assessing how the employee is doing using performance scale rating which show the strengths and weaknesses in important areas which may include promptness and following given instructions among others. The employees are also given the chance to share their suggestions and concerns about the workplace experiences and details such as pay raise, promotions and many others. Furthermore, the significant progress made in achieving the employee goals in a set time period is also evaluated. These employee goals can be set by the organization or can be set voluntary. Word Count: 560 Reference List Trochim W. T. (2006). Research Methods Knowledge Base. Retrieved on May 2, 2009 from http://www. socialresearchmethods. net/kb/index. php

Performance Management in Human Resource Management

Performance Management in Human Resource Management The following essay critically evaluates the relative importance of Performance Management and the role it plays in effective Human Resource Management in organisations today, whilst referring to relevant HRM theories, models and tools. The importance of PM in relation to other HRM functions will also be discussed, including the need for integration across HRM practices and management of the organisation as a whole. People are undoubtedly the most important, valuable and costly resource for an organisation and how this resource is managed can have a direct impact on an individuals performance and the organisation as a whole. Many organisations have set up a Performance Management Process. In its simplest form, it is based on the concept of, in order to be the best; everyone needs to continually improve their performance. A PM process supports this and all people managers are responsible for ensuring that the process is effectively carried out. In their study, Armstrong and Baron (2009) define PM as a process which contributes to the effective management of individuals and teams in order to achieve high levels of organisational performance. As such, it establishes shared understanding about what is to be achieved and an approach to leading and developing people which will ensure that it is achieved. They stress that PM is a strategy which relates to every activity of the organisation set in the c ontext of its human resource policies, culture, style and communications systems. The nature of the strategy depends on the organisational context and can vary from organisation to organisation. Michael Armstrong states that Performance Management is a process which is designed to improve organisational, team and individual performance and which is owned and driven by line managers. In order to drive effective PM, line managers are required to set clear objectives for performance and communicate these to individuals in their team. They are required to provide timely and appropriate feedback on performance levels, including regular one to one discussions and to develop each individuals ability to perform at their best. In their article, Sally Selden and Jessica E. Sowa (2011), state that in exploring PM, one must start with an explanation of the process of managing individual employee performance. Typically, the process starts at the top of the organization with management developing a performance management policy. Managers generally control performance by influencing inputs and by feedback provided by outputs. They state that the ultimate objective of a PM process is to align individual performance with organisational performance. An organisations PM process, however, is subject to interpretation by individual employees who may not necessarily react to signals in the same way. David Guest (1997) in particular suggests that the impact of HRM practices, such as PM depends upon the employees perception and evaluation, prompting the need for scholars studying PM to recognise the crucial role of employee perceptions and to incorporate them into the analysis and construction of PM in organisations. An analysis of a typical Performance planning in organisations today would involve the creating of a Performance Development Plan (PDP) for an individual. A PDP may consist of the following sections: 1. what am I going to achieve? (My objectives) linked to the organisations strategy and possibly mission statement 2. How am I doing? used to track progress against objectives 3. How I will achieve my objectives? (my competencies) and 4. My PDP, which would include areas for the individuals development, actions to take, support needed and from whom and how the individual will know they have been successful Most organisations today use SMART objective setting (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound). The PDP would also record a review of discussions and include career aspirations and time frames. Santander (2012) state that the PDP is a living document; it should be amended as and when required. It is recommended that monthly reviews are held to make sure any issues or changes to the PDP can be discussed. In addition, they state that Formal Reviews of an individual take place twice a year mid year and end of year. During these informal and formal review meetings, the following elements should be considered : assessing performance against agreed targets and objectives, providing feedback, positive reinforcement ( emphasising what has been done well and making only constructive criticism about what might be improved ), two-way conversation an open exchange of views about what has happened and agreement jointly coming to an understanding about what needs to be done to improve performance generally and overcome any issues raised in the course of the discussion. Managing staff performance should be managing for the individual to succeed not fail. The centrepiece of a PM system is typically the performance appraisal. A Performance Appraisal (Review) is an opportunity for individual employees and line managers to engage in a dialogue about the individuals performance and development, as well as support required from the manager (CIPD, 2011). A performance appraisal has many purposes such as clarifying expectations, reviewing past performance, motivating employees and assessing potential/promotability. There are many benefits of appraisal but equally there are potential problems such as the over reliance on outcomes rather than performance and the interviews themselves can cause anxiety. So, does a performance appraisal constitute a PM? While performance appraisal is an important part of PM, in itself it is not PM, rather it is one of the range of tools that can be used to manage performance. The performance appraisal is often the central pillar of PM. Our 2009 PM survey found that a large majority of organisations use individual appraisals as part of PM programmes. However, it is a common mistake to assume that if organisations implement performance appraisals, they have PM. This is not the case. PM is a holistic process bringing together many activities that collectively contribute to the effective management of individuals and teams in order to achieve high levels of organisational performance. The process is strategic, in that it is about broader issues and long-term goals, and integrated in that it links various aspects of the business, people management, individuals and teams. Performance appraisal on the other hand is operational, short-to-medium-term and conc erned only with individual employees and their performance and development. While it is one of the tools of PM, and the data produced can feed into other elements of PM, appraisal by itself does not constitute PM. Bratton and Gold (2012) state that ideally an organisation should have a variety of techniques to encourage appraisal and PM culture including downward appraisal immediate manager, self appraisal, peer/team appraisal, upward appraisal, multisource and 360 degree appraisal. The latter is where feedback is gathered from a wide range of commentators typically including the individuals direct reports, customers and colleagues, as well as the line manager. Its supporters claim that this gives managers and individuals better information about skills and performance, as well as working relationships, compared with more traditional appraisal arrangements based on line managers assessments. With 360 degree feedback, typically eight to ten people complete questionnaires describing the individuals performance (including themselves). The questionnaire usually consists of a number of statements rated on a scale. The ensuing report should summarise the answers given. It often shows the actual ra tings given for each question, as well as averages for each question and for each competency, and any written comments. Ideally the feedback from the whole process should be made anonymous and presented to the recipient by a skilled coach. Like other forms of appraisals, the 360 degree feedback should not bring any great surprises to individuals. Its focus, rather, should be on helping them to understand how their behaviour is perceived by others and confirming the behaviour that is most likely to get results. If implemented correctly, those supporting 360 feedback feel it can achieve certain key objectives 1) identifying differences between the way individuals see themselves and how they are perceived by others, 2) establishing differences between the perceptions of different groups of respondents and 3) in doing so, helping to make PM a more objective and fair process. Numerous studies of PM have been conducted over the years, one of which is the Fine Intentions article by Duncan Brown and Wendy Hirsh (2011). Their article questions whether PM is a worthy successor to appraisals, PM systems are seen by HR as a route to fulfilling many complex requirements beyond simply linking people to organisational success but is that too tall an order, they question? There are many studies showing powerful links between people management practices and organisational performance, and appraisal usually comes out as a key practice in this regard. The key conclusion, they state, to be drawn from their work is that PM is indeed a vitally important process for employers. But it is also extremely difficult to implement effectively. They lost count of the number of times that the process was described to them in their studies as a turgid exercise in box ticking or form filling something you do to keep HR quiet. In their article, they site two case studies to illustr ate the current trends and improvements that can be made to PM processes 1. BT Operate a sharp focus on getting personal objectives aligned throughout the organisation, clarity about performance standards, and a clear line of sight between individual, team and business performance. There has also been significant support and training for people managers to enable them to deliver great performance practice. 2. Oxfam GB presents both opportunities and challenges for PM. Staff here are highly motivated by the mission, but that can tempt them to set unrealistic work goals and to be reluctant to take time away from immediate tasks in order to focus on their own performance and development. Following the case studies, Brown Hirsh highlight the following 4 areas that HR could adopt to build more effective PM Get strategic (HR thinking less about PM as a process and more about how it can support all employees to achieve individual goals in support of organisations strategy); Keep it sim ple (simplify and clarify their processes); Focus on the feedback; and Equip the managers (training tailored to needs). Another study of PM and Appraisal in Human Organizations: Management and Staff Perspectives (Seldon Sowa, 2011) states that PM systems have been studied extensively in the public and for-profit sectors but not adequately explored in the non-profit sector. Their study addresses this gap and identifies gaps in the perception of management and staff concerning PM, and then identifying five different models of PM systems, concluding with lessons for practice. Organisations typically develop PM processes to motivate employees. The process can motivate employees by establishing expectations and providing feedback on achievement of those expectations. Ideally, the organisation can then target training to address the weaknesses identified or areas of potential growth. In addition, they can adopt compensation systems to reward the achievement of goals. Managing individual performance should result in higher employee satisfaction and morale and lower employee turnover, a process that has been demonstrated in research on public organisations. Their findings conclude that the non-profit organisations in their study do not rely on performance-based monetary rewards and incentives as critical components of their PM systems. Therefore, they state, it is important to focus on the possibility of other rewards tied to the PM system, such as job enrichment and job enlargement. They conclude that the preferable model of PM is the multi-feedback PM system for non-profit organisations and present three lessons to drive future research and practice: 1. Management to ensure that employees understand the PM system; 2. PM tools are underutilized in this sector; 3. PM is associated with positive employee outcomes, such as turnover, job satisfaction, enjoyment of job and commitment to the job. Many organisations today conduct regular employee opinion surveys to assess staff engagement. As Ben Willmott, senior policy adviser at the CIPD says: In the current environment, there is evidence that people are under increasing pressure in the workplace, that theres a growing trust deficit between people at the bottom and the top of organisations. Youve also got the squeeze on incomes, with people either having their pay frozen or receiving pay rises that are less than the rate of inflation. Against that backdrop, its difficult to build engagement. (Willmott, 2007). The Guest model of human resource management reflected the view that a core set of integrated HRM practices can achieve superior individual and organisational performance. According to Guest (1997), HRM differs from personnel management, and he attempts to identify the major assumptions or stereotypes underpinning each approach to employment management. He analyses HRM practices from selection, training, appraisal, rewards, job design, involvement and status and security. Most organisations today offer a comprehensive Rewards and Benefits package which can be used to both attract and retain employees. Reward Management, as part of HRM, incorporates rewarding people in relation to their value to the organisation as measured by their actual and potential contribution, and matching rewards and incentives to peoples needs and goals. In defining their Reward packages, organisations must consider external competitiveness and internal equity, aim to maintain or improve levels of employee performance and comply with employment legislation and regulations. Packages can include benefits such as (14) reduced rates on Apple products, all employee car scheme, partnership shares, retirement plan, childcare vouchers, performance related pay, incentive schemes linked to role and numerous others. Pay progression within companies usually depends on individual performance linked to PM, market rate and competency. According to CIPD (2012), 66% of organisations use a co mbination approach to pay progression e.g. individual performance and length of service. Employers need to align the rewards desired by employees with the needs of business. There are various elements to reward and it is important that they choose the appropriate mix of base to variable pay, fixed to flexible packages and pay to non-pay rewards. They should be aware of the various organizational risks that are involved when making decisions on how they reward and recognize individual and collective contribution. It is important that an appropriate communications strategy is adopted to explain to staff what behaviours, values and performances the organisation is rewarding, how and why (CIPD, 2012). Within HRM, organisations have a sickness absence policy which clearly sets out their policy statement and both employer and employee responsibilities. In the Annual Report 2011 CIPD (2012) assessed their conclusions on absence management and, giving line managers primary responsibility for managing absence remains one of the most commonly used approaches for managing absence. Serious commitment to flexible working practices within HRM may help reduce absence due to stress, home/family responsibilities and illegitimate reasons, all of which remain common causes of absence for a sizeable proportion of organizations. Their findings conclude that investment in promoting employee well-being and managing stress at work is worthwhile. A focus on these issues and employee engagement, they state, will promote attendance and organizational performance. To conclude, Performance Management is a crucial and fundamental function of human resource management. It focuses on setting a clear process for managers to follow in order to get the best from their people. The total rewards system and 360degree feedback performance analysiss seem very appropriate to be used by all organizations, to enhance employee performances and involvement. Writing this essay has taught me a great deal about the pressure involved in being a line manager and the standards required to do so effectively.

1 BACKGROUND Essay example -- Business and Management Studies

1 BACKGROUND 1.1 Ford Motor Company Ford was the pioneer of the motor vehicle, just over 100 years ago. Today, Ford Motor Company is a family of automotive brands consisting of: Ford, Lincoln, Mercury, Mazda, Jaguar, Land Rover, Aston Martin, and Volvo, employing 350,321 (Yahoo Finance) workers in more than 200 countries. 1.2 Motor Industry The American oligopoly in the motor industry, consisting of Ford, General Motors and Chrysler, has suffered from poor financial results recently. As reported by www.guardian.co.uk (16/06/03), â€Å"the big three US car-makers are wrestling with the combined effects of over-capacity, growing competition from Europe and Japan, huge pension and health care costs, and a damaging increase in incentives to get customers into the showrooms†. A real sign that the car industry is in the midst of major change came when www.reuters.com (25/01/04) reported that Toyota had overtaken Ford as the world’s second-biggest automobile manufacturer. The Japanese firm’s strategy of focusing on quality, efficient manufacturing and targeting new markets paid off with their market capitalisation, at $120bn, totalling more than the â€Å"big three† combined. The main value driver for the motor industry is platforms, or production lines. The Japanese and European firms invested heavily in multi-car platforms and can now base a number of cars on one platform, rather than the traditional method of one car per platform. This has reduced their fixed costs dramatically and allowed these firms to sell their cars at much cheaper rates and gain market share. Developing new platforms requires serious investment not just in financial terms, but also in time. The â€Å"big three† are several years behind the new competition and because of this, American automotive research firm Iceology estimate the market share of the â€Å"big three† could fall from 60.2% in 2003 to 56.5% by 2006 (Business Week, 3867, 76). 2 CURRENT POSITION 2.1 Competitive Position The intense publicity generated by Ford’s recent centenary celebrations diverted attention from the fact the company was suffering from slowing sales and dire financial results, such as losing $5.5bn in 2001 (Strategic Direction, 19(1), 9). CEO Jacques Nasser led Ford away from their core business and despite replacing him in 2001, the combined effects of his reign and the e... ...Can Ford Fix This Flat?’, ‘Business Week’, 2003, 3860, 50 ‘Detroit Tries It the Japanese Way’, Business Week, 2004, 3867, 76 ‘Ford Feels the Pressure’, ‘Strategic Direction’, 2003, 19(1), 9-12 ‘Big Three Car Bosses Fight for Pole Position’, ‘Strategic Direction’, 2003, 19(11), 10-13 ‘Restructuring Ford Europe’, ‘European Business Review’, 2003, 15(2), 77 - 86 ‘Pedal to the Medal - Enough is enough’, ‘Business Week’, 2004, 3865, 30 Financial Resources DataStream (Aston University Library) Internet Resources www.guardian.co.uk, ‘Ford goes in for refit after 100 years’ www.reuters.com, ‘Toyota overtakes Ford as No.2 car maker’ http://finance.yahoo.com/, Yahoo Finance http://www.autointell-news.com/News-2002/January-2002/January-2002-3/January-16-02-p4.htm - Ford Motor Company Announces Revitalisation Plans http://www.forbes.com/reuters/newswire/2004/03/02/rtr1282302.html - Ford's Scheele sees deflationary price environment Truby (2002) - http://www.detnews.com/2002/autosinsider/0209/25/a01-596413.htm Susanto (2003) - http://www.susanto.id.au/papers/JITFORD.asp Lienhert (2004) - http://www.forbes.com/2003/12/15/cx_dl_1215feat.html

Problems In Nigeria Essay

INTRODUCTION That â€Å"Africa was a cultural wasteland, until the Europeans sowed the seeds of civilization on her cultural barren shores† amounts to no culture in this geographical entity inhabited by people until the Europeans brought them the way of life. It is tempting to want to be subjective rather than being objective in discussing this topic, but bearing in mind that the Europeans are as rational as the Africans, one cannot but try to detach self from every sentiment in order to appraise and come out with substantial arguments with regards to the subject matter. Africa is of the continents of the world where Homo sapiens inhabit. It has been a stage upon which the drama of human development and cultural differentiation has been acted since the beginning of history. Yet, no continent has suffered: mistreatment; misunderstanding; misrepresentation; misinterpretation and have been misreported either in people’s conversation or on the mass media. The African continent has been described as synonymous to famine, drought, barbarism, peoples without culture until the Europeans in their magnanimity brought civilization to them. These amongst others are the opinions of many Eurocentric thinkers and ideologists. Yet, the fact remains, that the African like the European have eyes, hands, organs, affections and passions; laughs when tickled; angry when provoked; searches for food and security; reasons and judges. Like the Europeans can be murderous, hypocritical, rude, polite, selfish and loving so is an African capable. In whatever ways, the African as well as the Europeans are subject to the same laws of nature. It stirs equivocation in attempting to place superiority of one over the other. Thus, this work shall however, try to clarify the conceptual terms in the topic of debate as well as provide answers to the pertinent questions there in: What is Culture? What is Civilization? Had Africa any culture or civilization before her interaction with the Europeans? What are the seeds of civilization sown by the Europeans? To what extent do these seeds pay the African? From facts  gathered, the work shall evaluate and draw a conclusion. THE CONCEPTS OF CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION In his work, African Culture and Civilization, S. A. Ajayi presents culture as the established pattern of behaviour among a people that embraces every aspect of a man’s life and experiences. He refers to culture as a perceived way of life or the totality of all human efforts and achievements in bid to struggle to survive the prevalent opposing forces of nature. Culture comprises all about man’s ideas, behaviours and products. It finds expression in a people’s language, philosophies, institutions, arts, architecture amongst others. In fact, while everything created by God is nature, everything made by man is culture. However, many people from varying backgrounds have viewed culture differently. In the Western world, culture is limited to ideas, values, and attitudes. While Africans view it as the preserved traditions or ways of life of the forbearers and ancestors. This therefore is responsible for the reason why people tend to equate some aspects of culture of a people such as traditional dances and music, arts objects, traditional institutions, rites of passage such as marriage, birth, initiation, burial and the likes to mean the totality of culture. Technically speaking, Edward Burnett Tylor employs culture and civilization as complement of each other. According to him, â€Å"Culture and civilization, taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is the complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, arts, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society†. Having observed the various definitions of culture, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 2002, defined culture as a â€Å"set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of a society or a social group, encompassing, in addition to art and literature, ways of living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs†. And culture vary from one people to another, as such it is relative across peoples and places. Therefore, it would be inappropriate to use the culture of one people as a standard to judging another. A people’s culture develops, and this development makes up the people’s civilization and history. Civilization is an on-going process as man continues in his bid to conquer and control his immediate environment for aesthetic, cultural, religious,  social, economic, and political advancement. In a nutshell, civilization refers to the social advancement that occurs in a given society be it in terms of technological advancement, progressive changes in folkways, education, leisure, family life, customs, beliefs, and more. CULTURAL VIEW OF AFRICA BEFORE EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION J. E. Casely-Hayford, (1922), an African (Gold Coast) Nationalist said of Africa that â€Å"Before even the British came into relations with our people, we were a developed (cultured) people, having our own institutions, having our own ideas of government†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Casely means to say that Africans did not need to encounter the Europeans before developing their culture. To say a people that lived for several millennia as recorded in books of history had not the way of life amounts to suspicion. Africa is occupied by many distinct human populations of a great complexity of cultures. They and their history, culture and civilization are inseparable. This is â€Å"because their history is the record of what they did, thought and said; and their culture and civilization are the totality of ideas, concepts and values that characterized their societies†. The indigenous peoples of Africa are culturally diverse as evident in the variations in the elements of culture across Africa. However, there are some common elements in the core African values. Like all societies experience, Africa is no different that the level of civilization across the continent differs. Twenty five (25) centuries ago â€Å"Egypt was capable of producing wealth in abundance because of mastery of many scientific natural laws and intervention of technology to irrigate, grow, food, and extract minerals from the subsoil† while other parts of Africa employed bows, wooden clubs in their exploration. The reason why civilization was uneven amongst peoples when left on their own can partly be dependent upon the environment in which they evolved, and the ‘superstructure’ of the human society. This implies that as humans battled the material environment, they created forms of social relations, forms of government, patterns of behaviour and systems of belief which together constituted the superstructure which was never exactly the same in any two societies. However, there existed interaction between the elements of the superstructure. For instance, the political and religious patterns affected each other and were often entwined. Whenever we try to discuss pre-European  African past, many concern themselves to knowing about the existence of African ‘civilizations’. This flows from an attempt to make comparisons with European ‘civilization’. This however is not the context in which to evaluate the so-called civilization of Europe. The activities of the European capitalists from the period of slavery through colonialism, fascism and genocidal wars in Asia and Africa instigate suspicion to attach to the use of the word ‘civilization’. Western racism which became more pronounced in the 19th and early 20th centuries came to promote the prior unfamiliar predisposition in which the peoples of the Western world saw â€Å"civilization† as their exclusive feat and equated to it entirely mean the Western culture. To them any way of life other than theirs amounted to uncivilized or at best semi-civilized life. EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION IN AFRICA: AN ABSTRACT OF ITS â€Å"CULTURAL SEEDS† The 19th century witnessed most colonization of Africa by various European powers. It was apparently to bring enlightenment to the ‘dark continent’. Over a century has passed by; it seems to Africans that colonialism amounts to material exploitation, cultural expropriation and anthropological insolvency. It is obvious today that Africans have â€Å"benefited† indeed from the cultural seeds of European civilization; for they speak their languages, wear their clothes, bear their kind of names, drive in automobiles made by them, and drink their champagnes. These â€Å"benefits† otherwise known as cultural seeds of European civilization have brought upon the African, gross ego distortion; he is stripped of his self confidence. In fact, he has been dehumanized. Ngugi Wa Thiong’o says: â€Å"the cumulative effect of the experience of slavery and colonialism is tantamount to a cultural bomb. The effect of this cultural bomb is to annihilate a peopleâ€℠¢s belief in their names, in their language, in their heritage of struggle, in their unity, in their capacities and ultimately in themselves†. Furthermore, to corroborate the position of Ngugi Wa, an American Journalist writes of the African experience: The colonialists left behind some schools and roads, some post offices and bureaucrats. But the cruelest legacy on the African continent was a lingering inferiority complex, a confused sense of identity. After all, when people are told for a century that they’re not as clever or capable as their masters they eventually start to believe it. In the words  of an African renowned author and poet, Chinua Achebe in his magnum opus: Things Fall Apart (1959), Achebe says â€Å"the white man has indeed put a knife on the things that held Africans together and they have fallen apart’. In his contribution in the work edited by Byron William (1982), Eileen Egan’s â€Å"Refugees: The Uprooting of People as a Cause of Hunger†, Egan says: â€Å"much of the post-colonial history of the continent of Africa could be recorded in the calligraphy of agony traced by refugees as they crossed and re-crossed new-made frontiers. The nations which sprang up at the wake of the â€Å"scramble for Africa† were heir to colonial errors in drawing borders. The borders carved out in faraway Berlin, cut across tribal, religious and linguistic groupings and also joined groups harbouring immemorial enmities. This is a major cause of civil wars and hostilities which have occurred in such countries as Nigeria, Angola, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Guinea, Zaire, Uganda, Chad, Sudan and Somalia. The greater numbers of refugees in Africa come from some of these countries. EVALUATION Having expounded the concepts of culture and civilization and its evidence in human societies, it then becomes palpable that prejudice and perhaps ignorance of what culture entails, predicated the derogatory assertion against Africa. It may also not be far from fact that for a people to hold that Africa had no civilization until their contact with the Europeans could be as a result of their lack of knowledge of the African continent with her cultural wealth. The assertion made by early European explorers, that Africa was a jungle until her contact with Europeans can be said to be unsubstantiated. Even before the birth of Christ, the Noks in Nigeria were already casting iron and producing terra-cotta. Trans-Sahara trade was already on when William the Conqueror ruled England. It is worthy of note, that several historians of Africa have it that when the first Europeans reached Benin in the fifteenth century: many years before Columbus set off for the Americas, they found a highly organ ized kingdom with a disciplined army, an elaborate ceremonial court, and artisans whose work in ivory, bronze, wood and brass is prized throughout the world today for its craftsmanship and beauty, one that is comparable to what was then found in Europe . How then can a people without culture be organized and creative?  The answer is looming in the air as evident in the quote by Walter Rodney (2005). He presents the description by the Dutch visitors to Benin, thus: The town seems to be very great. When you enter into it, you go into a great broad street, not paved, which seems to be seven or eight times broader than the Warmoes Street in Amsterdam†¦ The king’s palace is a collection of buildings which occupy as much space as the town of Harlem, and which is enclosed with walls. There are numerous apartments for the Prince’s ministers and fine galleries, most of which are as big as those on the Exchange at Amsterdam. They are supported by wooden pillars encased with copper, where their victories are depicted, and which are carefully kept clean. The town is composed of thirty main streets, very straight and 120 feet wide apart from infinity of small intersecting streets. The houses are close to one another, arranged in good order. These people are in no way inferior to the Dutch as regards cleanliness; they wash and scrub their house so well that they are polished and shining like a looking glass In the spirit of objectivity, unless the Eurocentric minds have a different meaning yet to be conceptualized of culture and civilization though, or are able to establish the foundation that these terms are exclusive reserves of the Europeans, their assertion of Africa remains a defamation. CONCLUSION This work has tried to conceptualize civilization and culture; it did not find these concepts as exclusive reserves of a particular people or race. It therefore leaves one in a puzzle why supposed elites such as David Hume, A. P. Newton, Harry Johnson, Margaret Perham, Trevor Roper and others would view Africa as no good until her contact with Europe. Harry Johnson opines that before the arrival of Europeans, tribal Africans were barbarous people who had never advanced beyond the first step of civilization. If these â€Å"elites† have knowledge of history, the experience of the Dutch visitors to Benin in the 15th century would have put right their thinking. In my opinion, if there is anything the Europeans’ arrival brought, it definitely could not have been cultivating a virgin African land with the seeds of European civilization. It perhaps could be the sowing of darnel in the vibrant plantation of Africa cultural heritage. Scholars are not intellectual fraudsters. For anyone to qualify to be a scholar, he must separate himself from all emotional sentiments, free himself of all prejudice, racial injustice and deal squarely and be unbiased in dealing with a subject matter. On this basis, one may begin to wonder whether world acclaimed elites as David Hume, Trevor Ropers, A. P. Newton and others can be referred to as scholars. And for many academic loyalists who do not read between lines ideas presented in books or propagated through other means, here is a clarion call to retrace the right path employing the apparatus of objectivity so as not to be caught in the celebration of falsehood. BIBLIOGRAPHY ï‚ §Ajayi, S. Ademola. ed. (2005). African Culture and Civilization, Ibadan: Atlantis Books. ï‚ §Byron, William ed. (1982). The Causes of World Hunger, New York: Paulist Press. ï‚ §Ehusani, George O. (1991). An Afro-Christian Vision â€Å"OZOVEHE†: Toward A More Humanized World, New York: University Press of America. ï‚ §Lamb, David (1986). The Africans: Encounters from the Sudan to the Cape, London: The Bodley Head Press. ï‚ §Ngugi Wa, T. O. (1986). Decolonizing the Mind, London: James Curray Press. ï‚ §Rodney, Walter (2005). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, Abuja: Panaf Publishing, Inc.