GLOBAL OUTSOURCING Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

GLOBAL OUTSOURCING - Essay ExampleIt has also been able to simplify stock holding and brought them down to 8.9 cardinal from staggering 40 million. The overall net effect of the above savings is decrease in production costs of every component (vehicle) by 34 (Reynolds, 2012). It has been able to free up its real property for process of manufacturing vehicles. Therefore, jaguar state of matter Rover has not only been capable of improving its supply arrange but also to deliver fantastic savings on costs. Importantly, Jaguar Land Rover has been able to increase customer satisfaction (Reynolds, 2012).5The troupe trades as Jaguar Land Jaguar Land Rover Automotive PLC. It is a multinational company manufacturing and selling vehicles globally. Its headquarters ar in Whitley, proscription in the United Kingdom. The chief executive officer of Jaguar Land Jaguar Land Rover Company is Ralf Speth. Jaguar Land Jaguar Land Rover company is the largest automotive manufacturing business in the United Kingdom. The company manufactures the automotives around two iconic car brands from the United Kingdom. These iconic car brands are Land Rover and jaguar. Land over is a originations top producer of finest all wheel drive automobiles. Jaguar is a world leading premier luxury sports car and sports saloon car Marques. Jaguar Land Jaguar Land Rover brings together these two highly honored and much loved brands of cars. Tata Motors acquired Land Rover and jaguar companies from Ford Company in 2008 and later merged them in to a single automotive manufacturing company. Jaguar Land Jaguar Land Rover has been successful and it has been flourishing with innovative technologies and memorable vehicles that add to the companys extensive enduring legacy of unique automotive manufacturing business (Woolley & Grice 2013).Jaguar Company started in 1922 as a motorcycle sidecars manufacturer. Now, the company name was Swallow SideCar Company. It started to

Formal and Informal Organisations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Formal and In pissal Organisations - Essay ExampleThe paper tells that the nature of clientele and the manner of activities that form their core objectives sometimes demand that formality can be suspended to attain immediate outcomes as situations of the health of patient might warrant. Nevertheless, for the reasons of administrative effectiveness, they must(prenominal) strive to retain formal organization to stand the challenges of the medical-legal issues, economy, and the body politics medical professionalism. This critical analysis looks at the pertinent predicaments in the health and loving services sector and evaluates the remedies that they may have to manage such exigencies. Social or health organizations derive their institutional power from the quality of services they fabricate to clients. They must, accordingly, objectify their systems to their most desirable outcomes without which they may have no regard. On the other hand, such organizations render very useful servi ces to the public and therefore must be very rigidly controlled and regulated. They organizational types they must embrace therefore result from a unique mix of opportunities and challenges. Conventionally, health and social organizations wear a formal design because of the centralized administrative practices in the public sector. Mixed systems in the institutional plan ar therefore called for to bridge the opening night between uncertainties and emergency. It is through the mixed designs that many organizations adjust to their real predicaments and survive the market. Without the ability to survive, organizations would simply perish to bankruptcy. The demands at the operations end of the organization are enormous. It is the nature of such demands that compel the organizations to adjust to informal approaches to such operations. It must be mentioned that such organizations retain perfect formal operations at the policy and administrative levels.

Criticism of the movie '' City of God'' Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Criticism of the movie City of God - Essay ExampleAdditionally, this nine never valued the right of others. For instance, despite world bathed in golden lights and amber moods, children were being kicked around like football. Furthermore, the City of God is often expected to flourish in light throughout or all the time. However, it was full of darkness at some points. The darkness in this film is characterized not only y the frequent b lackouts it experiences, but also by the action of its people.Nonetheless, the film is produced in a captivating style that is appealing to the audience. The storyline is perfect and well formulated. The film portrays the social issues that happened in a society. The society in question is Brazilian society that needed quick interventions. Furthermore, despite the films setting being based in a Brazilian society, its message of rotten vices in was far reaching with some of the crimes being global concerns. The problems and damages caused by gang gro ups have continued to affect legion(predicate) parts of the global society including cities in the United States. It is also worth noting that the film depicted immense creativity particularly in reflecting real bread and butter violence in a society. Additionally, the creativity is in the use of slang language that makes the film truly local and appealing to its targeted audience. In addition, the music that changes depending on the scenes significantly adds value to the success of this film. The director and producer of the film also ensured that the cinematography and writing were also perfectly related. The written script of the film visualized the vices in the society and the same I well brought in play by the cinema presented by the film.Notably, the first expression in the film is the lack of peace and order in the society. This theme strikes everywhere and it is what leads to criminal activities such as murder, theft and rape. One of

Micro Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Micro Economics - Essay ExampleProfit is the difference between the total revenue obtained from sales and the total cost incurred by the firm.In the long-run the decisions taken would be only exit decisions. Exit decisions atomic number 18 decisions taken by a firm to leave the market. They are not called as Shut-down decisions. Shut-down is only in the short-run. Long run equilibrium plays a crucial role in deciding the existence of the firm. In the long run in that location are enough time periods for the firm to cover its losses and earn normal improvements. This is because in the long run, all inputs are variable and the firm rotter have the most profitable level of output i.e. the profit maximization level of output.(B) In the recent years, the bloodline travel market has seen a awe-inspiring change with respect to the airline industry. Changes in demand for leisure travel include more short term breaks and more independent holidays where passengers book flights, politica l machine and accommodation by themselves. The reason for the decline in business class travel is the supply led senior high business fares which stretched the so called inelastic business class segment and also he expansion of low cost airlines.2. Price Discrimination can be defined as the method of charging antithetical expenditures for essentially the equal good to different buyers. There are three types of Price disagreement. They are, first, second and third degree discrimination.First-degree discrimination - This is the most extreme take a shit of discrimination in which each consumer is charged the maximum price he would be willing to pay for each individual unit consumed. This kind of discrimination can be noticed in the healthcare industry where doctors charge different fees from different patients.Second-degree price discrimination - This is a more practical piddle of price discrimination. Here firms charge a different price for each set of units sold. Different pri ces are charged for different blocks or portions of consumption. This kind of price discrimination is followed in the power and telecom industry. The reason behind this is the prices are based on the quantities of output purchased by individual consumers. By doing so, the firms can profit as the quantities used or consumed vary from individual to individual and hence if at that place is a high consumption by a particular consumer, there is a chance for the firm to earn more profits. Third-degree price discrimination - This is the most common form of price discrimination. Consumers or markets are segmented on the basis of their price elasticity of demand. Often, third-degree price discrimination occurs in the markets that are geographically separated. Foe example, books published by American publishers are sold in other countries at a lower price than in the U.S. Evidently, buyers in the other countries have greater elasticity of demand that US buyers. At the same time, the high shi pping costs makes it unprofitable for firms to buy in foreign countries and resell in the United States.(B) Whenever we travel, is it a train or a flight, it is noticed that adults are charged a different price for the ticket and children are charged a different price. Other similar price discrimination in the same context is that rails some have rail cards entitling them to discounts others do not. It is cheaper for people who book in advance. This

Amercian History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 4

Amercian History - Essay ExampleAnd, of course, as there are with any widespread semipolitical movement, there were economic reasons why the Revolutionary vanguard declared independence. Legislation passed by the British Empire made it increasingly difficult to decease apart from the state itself. Taken together, all of these factors comprised what Americans now characterized as tyranny, as it is phrased in the Declaration of Independence, put to the pen of Thomas Jefferson in 1776. either account of the American Revolution will inevitably say there was no one true cause, or reason, for the Declaration instead, a broad rate of social, economic, ideological, and philosophical reasons can be described as contributing factors to what led to the creation of the United States.In the years leading up to the American Revolution, sentiments against slap-up Britain seemed to center on ideological and philosophical shifts away from desires to remain attached with the mother state. But in the decades before the Declaration, shifts seemed to occur on the political and even economic level. The Seven Years War drained the financial reserves of the British Empire, and the Navigation Acts, designed to alleviate this pressure, caused resentment among the American Colonies. Additional political and economic burdens on the colonies by the financially downtrodden Empire, such as the Sugar Act, Currency Act, Stamp Act, and Revenue Act between the years 1764 and 1766, led to a rift in political interests. Stories like that of Ebenezer Macintosh, and his protests against the British Parliaments passage of the Stamp Act, illustrates for historians and students of history alike what direction American feelings for British were passing game in, even a decade before the American Revolution officially began. Today, American historians look back as far as 1763 to see the earliest examples of strong Parliamentary interference in the

The Impact of Anarchy Essay Example for Free

The Impact of Anarchy EssayAnarchy is found in in all societies to some certain degree. The sound of much(prenominal) may not come along to be as delightful as that of governmental successes in account, but digging deeper on such, shall open a whole wide range of arguments brought by anarchy in the field of history (Black, 1980).As a philosophical term, the definition of anarchy is most likely described as an opposing linage of arche which does not mean opposing the political leader. It significantly comes to mean the principles of element, supreme power, sovereignty, dominion, command, authority then leading on to an empire, a realm, magistracy, a governmental office, at that (Weir, 1997). The exact meaning of the word which is normally world collaborated with the word opposing had then evolved through time that it has continuously occupied improper and confusing usage. work powerfulness of elaboration always tend to have something in common. The transformation of societ y had been blatantly felt during the French Revolution that the European society is remade using a new set of political models and thus having the modern-nation states start to emerge, so as with national cultures (Weir, 1997). Supposedly, not on a plurality but totality scheme, culture was not to be divisible but such counter-movements during that era floated up in the scene. For the reason of such scenario, it is precisely fit to assume that politics is per se anarchic given the fact that it has the potential to separate and divide populations along ideological lines. Moreover, democratic politics is also considered as the most divisive force of all, having the tendency to produce individuals wherein such primary culture may be compensated in allegiance to them (Lilly, Cullen, Ball, 2006).The unfortunate factors of such circumstance are the losses it takes under the cohesion of the culture. On the other hand, the well-disposed disintegration on culture caused by wrought of pol itics may lead to weaving different individuals together again, forming an alliance of which adheres with a common thought that they have (Weir, 1997). In a form of integration for a common sensibility the affirmation of anarchism being practiced by such considered politicians and thus perceived as a threat of amicable disorder is countered in the scheme of culture by all right and even culture itself is as a matter of fact no longer the universalizing force outside of history humankind suppose it to be (Rueschemeyer, 1978). The behavior of right constituting all the massive forces of political power, by all means also convey the act of anarchism. Considerably, the classical illustration of Donald Black with regards to such also gave a couple of relevance in displaying the classic formulation of laws. Its comprehensive explanatory theory of the law revolved around governmental social control, margin of stratification, proofs of differentiation, social distance specifications, and periphery of social life location, culture symbols, organizational management techniques and non-legal social control incidences (Black, 1980). The variation of all fields of law had been divulged on to the role and the impact made by anarchy. He announces the major phenomena of anarchy as one which are treated as variables in the valued state. Significantly noting such as to a social life without law, hence, that the earlier societies were measured in banishment, beating to ridicule and even teasing.He even cited the place of dictatorship as one which tends to surrender their usual liberties for the strength of the organization (Lilly et al., 2006). All of which he tantamount its capacity and capability to explain other kinds of social control on how it is specifies the conditions of anarchy-social life without law by implication basis. Theories ought to lay a couple of explanations so as to know how a phenomenon had shrugged a state, or a government (Weir, 1997). In conclusion, the impacts of anarchy defy explanatory implications which orbit around culture and society and now pave a forceful supremacy in the cloud of politics in historical precessions.ReferencesBlack, D. (1980). The Behavior of Law (2Rev Ed ed.). San Diego CA Academic Press.Lilly, J. R., Cullen, F. T., Ball, R. A. (2006). Criminological Theory Context and Consequences (Fourth Edition ed.). Los Angeles sharp Publications, Inc.Rueschemeyer, D. (1978). The Behavior of Law. by Donald Black. The American Journal of Sociology, 83(4), 1040-1042.Weir, D. (1997). Anarchy Culture The Aesthetic Politics of Modernism. Amherst Mass. University of Massachusetts Press.

The role of Intelligence in the formulation of government policies Essay Example for Free

The role of intelligence service in the formulation of g everyplacenment policies EssayIntroductionEspionage is the secret collection of breeding, or erudition, that the base of much(prenominal) information wishes to protect from disclosure. Intelligence refers to evaluated and processed information needed to make decisions. The term piece of ass be engaged with reference to business, military, economic, or political decisions, unless it most commonly relates to governmental contrasted and defense policy. Intelligence generally has a national security connotation and therefore exists in an aura of secrecy. Espionage, or spying, is illegal according to national laws. Spying proceeds against the attempts of counter-espionage (or counter- apprehension) agencies to protect the secrecy of the information desired. International espionage methods and operations begin few boundaries. They have been romanticized in universal fiction and the mass media, but in reality, espionag e exists in a secret populace of deception, fraud, and mosttimes violence. Espionage involves the recruiting of agents in hostile nations efforts to encourage the disloyalty of those possessing signifi back endt information and phone surveillance as soundly as the usance of a full range of modern spudic, sensing, and detection devices and other techniques of eliciting secret information (see C. S. Trahair, Richard. Encyclopedia of raw War Espionage, Spies and cryptic Operations, 2004). The intents of this paper atomic number 18 to (1) trace how espionage started (2) k this instant the justification and international sanction of intelligence (3) know the recruitment agents (4) be awargon how espionages are equanimous (5) be acquainted espionage agencies and net mildews (6) be informed how espionage during the nineteenth century and early 20th century (7) know the role of espionage during knowledge base War II and Modern Era (8) realized how is espionage in politics and in dustry (9) learn about the Espionage Act of 1917 (10) know about Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) as one of the agencies of intelligence and (11) know about its implications of modern technology. Background How espionage started? Intelligence was early recognized as a vital tool of statecraftof airiness or war. Writing almost 2,500 years ago, the Chinese military theorist Sunzi stressed the importance of intelligence. His book The Art of War (c. 500 BC) gave detailed book of instructions for organizing an espionage system that would include double agents and defectors. Intelligence, however, was haphazardly organized by rulers and military chiefs until the rise of nationalism in the 18th century and the growth of standing armies and airiness (see T. Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 1999).III. Discussion Justification and International Sanction of Intelligence In order to adopt and implement foreign policy, plan military strategy and organize armed forces, conduct diplomacy, negotiate arms control agreements, or participate in international organization activities, nations have vast information requirements.Not surprisingly, many governments of importtain some kind of intelligence capability as a matter of survival in a world where dangers and uncertainties still exist. The cold war may have ended, but hostilities continue in parts of Eastern atomic number 63, the former Soviet Union, the Middle East, and elsewhere. Indeed, the crash of old political blocs in the late 1980s has even increased international uncertainty and consequent need for information (see Carney, Ralph M. Citizen Espionage Studies in Trust and Betrayal. 2001). all(prenominal) nations have laws against espionage, but most sponsor spies in other lands. Because of the clandestine nature of espionage, no reliable count exists of how many intelligence military officersonly a small percentage of whom are actually spiesthere are in the world. A common estimate is that the United States today still employs some 200,000 intelligence personnel. The number that was generally ascribed to the Soviet intelligence ca-cament in the 1980s was 400,000, a figure that included border guards and internal security police (see T. Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 1999). The recruitment agents Today, scores of developed nations have efficient intelligence organizations with systematic programmes for recruiting newfangled agents. Agents come from three main sources the university world, where students are sought and trained for intelligence careers the armed services and police forces, where some degree of intelligence proficiency may already have been come through and the underground world of espionage, which produces an assortment of people, including criminal informers, with relevant experience (see Bungert, Heike Et Al. Secret Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 2003). Those who do the actual spying, which may involve larceny information or performing disloyal acts of disclosure, are led to this work by various motivations. Greed or financial need is a starring(p) incentive in many cases, but other motivations, much(prenominal) as ambition, political ideology, or nationalistic idealism, can figure importantly Oleg Vladimirovich Penkovsky, a super placed Soviet officer, provided valuable information to Western intelligence services in the belief that the West must be warned of danger. H. A. R. (Kim) Philby, the notorious English spy, worked for the Soviet Union on ideological grounds. Some spies must be carefully recruited and enticed into cooperation others volunteer. The latter must be handled with extreme caution, as it is common for double agents to be among the volunteers. Double agents are spies who pretend to be defecting, but in reality maintain their original loyalty. Counter-intelligence staffs are always sceptical of volunteers or defectors and rest rict their use for positive espionage purposes. In some cases, the most valuable spy of all is the agent-in-place, the person who remains in a position of trust with feeler to exceedingly secret information, but who has been recruited by a foreign intelligence service such a spy is known as a mole (see Herrington, Stuart A. Traitors among Us within the Spy Catchers World, 1999). A high-priority espionage quarry is the penetration of the various international terrorist organizations. If the leadership of such units can be infiltrated by spies, advance knowledge can be obtained of the location and identity of intended victims, the nature of the disguises being used by the hit team, and the secret sources of weapons. Such information could be used to resist terrorist operations. International drug trafficking, it has been asserted, can similarly be thwarted by effective espionage, but the problem is tangled, and only limited success has been achieved. How espionages are gathered? Intelligence work, including spying, proceeds in a five- stair process. Initially, what the decision nobles need to know is considered, and requirements are set. The second step is collecting the desired information, which requires knowing where the information is located and who can best obtain it. The information may be available in a foreign newspaper, radio broadcast, or other open source or it may be obtained only by the most sophisticated electronic means, or by planting an agent inside the decision-making system of the target area. The third step is intelligence production, in which the collected raw data are assembled, evaluated, and collated into the best possible answer to the question initially asked. The fourth step is communicating the processed information to the decision maker.To be useful, information must be presented in a timely, accurate, and understandable form. The fifth and crucial step is the use of intelligence. The decision maker may choose to ignore the information conveyed, thus possibly courting disaster on the other hand, a judgment may be made on the basis of information that proves inaccurate (see Hulnick, Arthur S. and Valcourt, Richard R. Fixing the Spy Machine Preparing American Intelligence for the Twenty-First Century, 1999).The point is that the decision maker must make the final crucial judgment about whether, or how, to use the information supplied. The intelligence process can fail at for each one or any of these five basic steps. Espionage Agencies and Networks The worlds intelligence, espionage, counter-intelligence, and c open action programmes may be said to follow three distinct organizational patterns the American, the totalitarian (exemplified by the commie regimes), and the British (parliamentary) systems. Similarities exist among them, yet distinctions are sharp. In the United States the Central Intelligence Agency continues to sit at the corner of an elaborate complex of some dozen separate intelligence org anizations. Each has a specific role and a carefully guarded area of operations. The director of central intelligence is both head of the CIA and the electric chairs principal intelligence adviser. In the latter job the director theoretically coordinates all the separate intelligence units, setting their requirements, budgets, and operational assignments.In reality, many of the major(ip) units in the systemsuch as the Defense Intelligence Agency and the huge guinea pig certification Agency/Central hostage Service, both part of the department of Defenseoperate in quasi-independence. The National Security Agency, which engages in code making and code breaking, the science of cryptography, is much large in staff size and budget than the CIA (see Marchetti, Victor and Marks, John D. The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence, 2001).The military in like manner maintains a major tactical intelligence capability to embolden field commanders in making on-the-spot decisions. Other major un its in the US intelligence system include the State Departments Bureau of Intelligence and Research, the Department of the Treasury, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the Drug Enforcement Administration of the Department of Justice. The US model influenced the intelligence structures of those countries where the United States was dominant at the end of World War II, such as West Germany (now part of the united Federal Republic of Germany), Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. In contrast to the federated American intelligence structure, the typical totalitarian apparatus is highly centralized. In the Soviet Union, the power of the KGB pervaded every aspect of national life. Its director was generally a powerful member of the Politburo (the governing political commissioning of the USSR). The KGB had two chief directorates.The most important was the First Directorate, which was responsible for foreign intelligence gathering. The Second Directorates principal responsibilities invol ved providing counter-espionage protection to the regime and recruiting foreign agents deep down the Soviet Union. Its targets included diplomats and journalists stationed in the USSR, foreign students, business people, tourists, and visiting delegations (see Macpherson, Nelson. American Intelligence in War-Time London The novel of the Oss, 2003).Most Eastern European governments followed the KGB model in their intelligence operations. China, Cuba, and other Communist nations still do. The third model of intelligence systems is the British, a confederation of agencies coordinated by a footlocker subcommittee and accountable to the Cabinet and prime minister. The two principal units are the Secret Intelligence Service (often called MI6, signifying military intelligence) and the Security Service (popularly called MI5). These labels reflect the military origins of these services, which are now in the civilian sector. MI6 is similar to the CIA and the KGB in that it carries out espio nage, counter-espionage, and covert action overseas. MI5 is charged with domestic counter-intelligence and internal security.Scotland Yard maintains a special branch, which operates as the overt arm of the security service it makes arrests and offers evidence in espionage cases while MI5 agents remain in the background. A number of specialized units as well operate within the British intelligence community. These include the Government Communications Centre (for code making and breaking), the Ministry of Defense intelligence sections, and various Foreign Office intelligence groups. With some national variations, the intelligence services of France, Italy, Israel, and the Commonwealth of Nations countries follow the general British pattern of organization (see Macpherson, Nelson. American Intelligence in War-Time London The Story of the Oss, 2003). During the 19th century Political espionage is thought to have first been used systematically by Joseph Fouch, duc dOtrante, minister of police during the French Revolution and the reign of Napoleon. Under Fouchs direction, a network of police agents and professional spies uncovered conspiracies to seize power organized by the Jacobins and by Bourbon Royalist migrs. The Austrian statesman Prince von Metternich also conventional an efficient organization of political and military spies early in the 19th century. Better known than either of these organizations was the dreaded Okhrana (Department for Defence of Public Security and Order) of the Russian tsars, created in 1825 to uncover opposition to the regime. During the mid-19th century the secret police of Prussia was reorganized and invested with the duty of safeguarding the external as well as the internal security of the country. The Prussian espionage system played an important part in preparations to unify the German states in the German Empire. It also covered France with a network of about 30,000 agents whose work contributed to the German victory in the Fran co-Prussian War of 1870-1871. Not until the latter part of the 19th century, however, were permanent intelligence bureaux created by modern states (see T. Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 1999). Early 20th century Systematic espionage help the Japanese in defeating the Russians in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. In preparing for World War I the Germans again flooded France with a host of agents, some of whom were disguised as trade representatives, teachers, agricultural labourers, or domestics. The most famous of these agents was Mata Hari, who posed as an Indian dancer in Paris. German agents also engaged in attempts to sabotage American national defense both before and after the US creation into World War I. Most nations, however, entered World War I with inadequate espionage staffs, and the war was frequently fought on the basis of poor intelligence. The lessons of that war, along with rapid advances in technology, especially i n communication theory and aviation, spurred a major growth in intelligence agencies.This was further stimulated by the advent of Fascist governments in Europe and a military dictatorship in Japan, all of which had expansionist foreign policies and the creation of counter-espionage agencies such as the Gestapo in Nazi Germany. These developments led other, democratic countries to establish counter-espionage systems as well (see Hulnick, Arthur S. and Valcourt, Richard R. Fixing the Spy Machine Preparing American Intelligence for the Twenty-First Century. 1999). Espionage during World War II World War II was the enormous stimulus to intelligence services worldwide. Modern military and communications technology put a premium on accurate and quick information, as well as on efforts to protect the security of sensitive information. Some of the expectant battles of World War II were actually intelligence and counter-intelligence battles. Only in late(a) years have some of the exploits , and disasters, in this secret war been disclosed. Notable is Operation Double Cross, in which the British captured practically all the German spies in Great Britain during the war and turned them into double agents who sent false information back to Germany. Also, the British and their allies were able to break the German secret code, providing access to many of the enemys secret transmissions (see Sexton Jr., Donal J. Signals Intelligence in World War II A Research Guide. 1999). The surprise attack by Japan on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, was a great intelligence success for the Japanese and an intelligence failure for the Americans. That failure stimulated the post-war growth of a massive intelligence apparatus in the United States.Before World War II the United States had virtually no intelligence system after the war the CIA became world famous for its pervasive international surveillance, joining the MI6, the KGB, the Service de Documentation Extrieure et de Contre-Espionage of France, Israels foreign intelligence bureau Mossad, Chinas Social Affairs Department, and numerous other intelligence agencies in a massive network of espionage and counter-espionage efforts (see Sexton Jr., Donal J. Signals Intelligence in World War II A Research Guide. 1999). Modern Era In the mid-1970s, as a result of disillusionment with the Vietnam War, the Watergate scandal, and the policies of dtente, many Americans began to question the role of the CIA. Mass-media disclosures of intelligence theatrical abuses and failures were followed by investigations by presidential commissions and congressional committees, which resulted in new guidelines for secret operations and a new structure for executive and legislative supervision. Controversy over the CIAs role and control remains, however. One result is an ever-increasing amount of public information about intelligence services nearly the world (see Espionage. Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowl edge, pp. 342-347, vol. 5). In Britain, MI5 remained unacknowledged by statute until 1989, and MI6 until 1994. Espionage in Politics and Industry Intelligence and espionage are terms most commonly associated with national foreign policies, yet secret information is needed to make decisions in politics, commerce, and industry. Political parties have always been interested in the strategic plans of their opponents or in any information that might abase them. Most large corporate enterprises today have divisions for strategic planning that require intelligence reports. Competitive enterprises are undeniably interested in the plans of their competitors contempt laws against such practices, industrial espionage is difficult to detect and control and is known to be an active tool for gaining such foreknowledge. Many of the tools of government intelligence work are used, including electronic surveillance and aerial photographic reconnaissance, and attempts are even made to recruit defec tors (see Espionage. Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowledge, pp. 342-347, vol. 5). Espionage Act of 1917 Espionage Act of 1917 is a principal United States formula prohibiting espionage for a foreign country and providing heavy penalties for such activity. As amended in 1940 and 1970, it is still in force. The 1917 law provided steep fines and imprisonment for collecting and communicate to foreign power information related to US national defense and for interfering with the recruitment or loyalty of the armed forces. Use of the US get out for material urging treason or resistance to US laws was prohibited sabotage, especially of trading ships, was subjected to severe penalties the movement of neutral ships in US wet was regulated (in order to stop such vessels from shipping arms or supplies to an enemy country) and the fraudulent use of passports as well as the unauthorized mission of a foreign government were prohibited. An important amendment to the law, usually called the Seditio n Act, was passed in 1918 but repealed in 1921 it forbade spoken or printed attacks on the US government, Constitution, or lurch (see Intelligence. bare-ass Standard Encyclopedia, pp. 431-437, vol. 7). During the outbreak of public hysteria following the US entry into World War I, the 1917 and 1918 laws permitted about 1,500 trials and prison sentences freedom of the librate was curtailed. In 1919 this led US Supreme Court justices Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., and Louis Brandeis to state the principle, later much cited, that unpatriotic speech and publications were illegal only if they constituted a benefit and present danger to national security. The 1940 revision of the Espionage Act increased its penalties. The application of the law to propaganda was limited by a Supreme Court decision in 1944. During World War II about 160 people were convicted under the Espionage Act. Also under this act, the American Communists Julius Rosenberg and Ethel Rosenberg were convicted of spying and executed in 1953 (see Intelligence. New Standard Encyclopedia, pp. 431-437, vol. 7). Central Intelligence Agency Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), agency of the Executive Office of the chairperson of the United States, created in 1947, together with the National Security Council. The CIA is Americas first permanent peacetime intelligence agency responsible for keeping the government informed of foreign actions affecting the nations interests. It was established by the National Security Act of 1947 and is charged with coordinating all US intelligence activities, as well as such functions and duties related to intelligence as directed by the National Security Council (see Darling, Arthur B. The Central Intelligence Agency An Instrument of Government, to 1950. 2002). A director and deputy director of the agency are appointed by the president with the consent of the Senate (see Hulnick, Arthur S. and Valcourt, Richard R. Fixing the Spy Machine Preparing American Intelligence for t he Twenty-First Century, 1999).History The CIAs original mission was primarily intelligence gathering, but after Communist takeovers in Eastern Europe and mainland China, the National Security Council directed that the agency engage in political, covert psychological, paramilitary, and economic operations. United States participation in the Korean War (1950-1953) placed additional requirements on the CIA to support the combat forces. In the period from 1953 to 1961 the CIA was at the height of its cold war activities, carrying out continuous foreign intelligence, counter-intelligence, political action, and propaganda operations. In late 1961 the CIA was reorganized to put more emphasis on science, technology, and internal management. The agency was heavily committed in the war in South East Asia. In 1963 an Office of National Intelligence Programs Evaluation was established to coordinate community activities this was replaced in 1972 by an Intelligence Community rung (see Lowenthal , Mark M. U.S. Intelligence Evolution and Anatomy, 1999).Activities The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is divided into four main directorates, or branches. The Directorate of Operations conducts covert activities around the world. The Directorate of Science and Technology interprets data gathered from electronic transmissions, spy satellites, and other sources. The Directorate of Intelligence produces analyses for policy makers by synthesizing information from the CIA and other federal official agencies. The Directorate of Administration oversees the agencys finances and personnel and monitors internal security. The activities of the CIA are many and varied. Clandestine collection of vital information that cannot be obtained by any overt means requires recruiting agents who can obtain the needed intelligence without detection. Intelligence reports from all sources are reviewed by analysts who produce studies ranging from basic surveys to estimates of future developments. Curre nt intelligence of major importance is detailed in daily, weekly, or monthly bulletins. Periodic projections concerning key nations are presented as national intelligence estimates (see Lowenthal, Mark M. U.S. Intelligence Evolution and Anatomy, 1999). The CIA is also responsible for counter-espionage activities. Its mission is to prevent the placement of foreign agents in sensitive US agencies domestically this work is coordinated with the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). natural covering political operations have ranged from subsidizing friendly foreign politicians, parties, or pressure groups to providing assistance in combating subversion. Paramilitary operations support certain exile forces with bringing up and equipment one example was the CIAs support of Cuban exiles before and during the Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba. Modern technology has increased the capabilities of intelligence collection. In the 1960s high-altitude aircraft introduced a new era of aerial photogra phy this was quickly followed by transmissions from space satellites. Similarly, underseas intelligence work was advanced by vessels capable of raising a submarine from great depths (see Lowenthal, Mark M. U.S. Intelligence Evolution and Anatomy, 1999).Controversy and investigations All clandestine activities are considered abhorrent by some people. Many, however, recognize secret intelligence collection prerequisite to protect national security. Generally, people support covert political activities in times of crisis. The role of the CIA director as the principal US intelligence officer and coordinator of activities of the other agencies has often been in dispute. oer the years frequent proposals have been made to divest the head of the CIA of the coordinating role and assign that function to a member of the White family line staff. The CIA has been investigated a number of times by various task force groups, one of which in 1949 recommended major reorganization of CIA operations . undermentioned the Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961, President John F. Kennedy appointed a group to analyze the failure. In 1975 the CIA came under extensive congressional and White House examination. It was found that the agency had been engaged in unlawful domestic spying activities and had been concerned in assassination attempts abroad. As a result of these investigations, permanent Congressional committees were established to oversee CIA operations. By 1980 these committees had exclusive jurisdiction over review of CIA activities (see Marchetti, Victor and Marks, John D. The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence, 2001). By 1986, however, the agency was involved in a new controversy concerning the secret sale of arms to Iran and the disbursement of monies from the sale to the rebels (known as the Contras) fighting the government of Nicaragua. The late CIA director William J. Casey, among others, was suspected of being implicated in the arms scandal. As the 1990s began, the collapse of the Soviet bloc and the dissolution of the USSR led the CIA to revise its mission and organization to meet changing world conditions. The United States government released the first of three batches of classified documents expected to shed light on relations between Chile and the United States during the 1970s in June 1999. These documents included reports by the Central Intelligence Agency referring to covert operations intended to promote a military coup and overturn the government of President Allende. There was further criticism for the CIA after the terrorist attacks on the United States of September 11, 2001, when it was accused of not having done enough to warn of, and possibly prevent, the impending disaster. Over the following months the organization was subsequently given extra powers and resources to conduct increased covert operations as part of the war on terrorism it also began to develop closer ties with the FBI (see T. Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies Intellig ence in the Twentieth Century. 1999). Conclusion Implications of Modern Technology All forms and techniques of intelligence are now aided by an accelerating technology of communications and a variety of computing and measuring devices. Miniaturized cameras and microfilm have made it easier for people engaged in all forms of espionage to photograph secret documents and conceal the films. Artificial satellites also have an espionage functionthat of aerial photography for such purposes as detecting secret military installations. Information held or programmes running on computers are vulnerable to penetration by hackers, whether acting independently or for other bodies.The vanguard of these developments is highly secret, but it is known that telephones can be tapped without wires, rooms can be bugged (planted with electronic listening and recording devices) without entry, and photographs can be made in the dark. Of course this same technology is used in countermeasures, and the competi tion escalates between those seeking secret information and those trying to protect it. In foreign embassies in sensitive areas, confidential discussions routinely take place in plastic bubbles encasing secure rooms, to protect the confidentiality of information. Intelligence agencies have long been known to be staffed with expert lip readers. Privacy of communications remains under constant assault by technological developments that offer threats to, but perhaps also promises for, human progress.ReferencesC. S. Trahair, Richard. Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies and Secret Operations, 2004. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT.T. Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 1999. Oxford University Press, New York.Carney, Ralph M. Citizen Espionage Studies in Trust and Betrayal. 2001. Praeger Publishers, Westport, CT.Bungert, Heike Et Al. Secret Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 2003. Frank Cass. London.Herrington, Stuart A. Traitors among Us Inside the Spy Catchers World, 1999. 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